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THE  ESSENTIALS 


OF 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


BY 


A.    HOWRY   ESPENSHADE,    M.A. 

ASSISTANT   PROFESSOR   OF   RHETORIC  AND   ENGLISH   IN   THE 
PENNSYLVANIA    STATE    COLLEGE 


BOSTON,   U.S.A. 

D.  C.   HEATH    &   CO.,  PUBLISHERS 

1904 


Copyright,  1904, 
By  D.  C.   Heath  &  Co. 

EDUCATION  DEPT. 


•  j  •  > 


jFrefc  letois  ^attee 


M249330 


PREFACE 

In  this  book  the  author  has  endeavored  to  present  a 
clear  and  comprehensible  discussion  of  the  essentials  of 
Rhetoric  and  English  Composition,  and  to  furnish  the  stu- 
dent with  suitable  constructive  and  critical  exercises.  The 
statement  of  rhetorical  principles  as  set  forth  in  the  text 
and  the  exercises  placed  at  the  end  of  each  chapter  have 
been  the  outgrowth  of  nine  years'  experience  in  the  teach- 
ing of  high  school  and  college  students.  The  book  is 
especially  designed  to  furnish  a  practical  course  for  pupils 
in  the  high  school  and  for  freshmen  in  college.  Neither 
the  text  nor  the  exercises,  it  is  believed,  will  be  found  too 
difficult  for  the  high  school  student  or  too  elementary  for 
the  average  college  freshman.  Such  a  course  of  instruc- 
tion as  is  embodied  in  this  book  should  form  part  of  the 
training  of  every  young  man  and  woman. 

In  three  respects  this  book  is  different  from  most  other 
books  on  Composition  and  Rhetoric.  First,  it  is  written 
from  the  practical  rather  than  the  literary  point  of  view. 
The  author  has  constantly  aimed  to  put  himself  in  the 
place  of  the  teacher,  who  must  explain  the  principles  of 
composition  so  clearly  that  the  average  student  can  under- 
stand them,  and  so  convincingly  that  he  cannot  help  seeing 
their  practical  value.  The  author  has  not  imagined  him- 
self to  be  a  literary  man  addressing  a  literary  audience, 
nor  has  he  taken  it  for  granted  that  the  students  who  use 
this  book  are  going  to  produce  literature.     Secondly,  he 


VI  PREFACE 

has  restricted  the  discussion  to  those  things  which  are 
teachable.  He  has  recognized  the  fact  that  certain  of  the 
finer  qualities  and  graces  of  style  are  not  directly  com- 
municable,—  that  the  student  cannot  acquire  them  from 
the  text-book  or  the  teacher.  Thirdly,  the  author  has  not 
ransacked  the  classics  of  English  and  American  literature 
in  order  to  make  a  collection  of  exercises  illustrating  faulty 
English.  The  makers  of  our  literature  have  fairly  won 
their  way  to  fame,  and  they  have  not  committed  any  faults 
so  serious  that  they  deserve  to  be  put  in  the  pillory  by 
every  schoolmaster.  There  is  something  ludicrous  in  set- 
ting a  schoolboy  the  task  of  correcting  the  work  of  such 
writers  as  Macaulay,  Addison,  and  Lowell.  The  task, 
moreover,  is  a  discouraging  one ;  the  young  writer  will 
naturally  despair  of  attaining  grammatical  correctness  or 
rhetorical  excellence  if  he  is  thus  led  to  believe  that  the 
masters  themselves  have  failed. 

No  one  who  writes  a  text-book  on  Rhetoric  nowadays 
can,  with  honesty,  lay  claim  to  much  originality.  This  is 
necessarily  true  of  a  science  which  had  reached  a  consid- 
erable degree  of  completeness  more  than  twenty  centuries 
ago,  and  which  has  ever  since  been  generally  taught  and 
used  as  a  basis  for  practical  work.  This  book  is  simply 
a  new  statement  of  old  truth.  The  author  has  not  sought 
mere  novelty.  He  has  aimed  simply  to  set  forth  the 
principles  of  Rhetoric  in  a  plain,  fresh,  and  interesting 
way,  and  to  show  their  practical  bearing  upon  the  art  of 
Composition.  Whatever  originality  the  book  possesses 
lies  in  the  method  of  presentation  and  in  the  illustrative 
material.  The  numerous  examples  and  exercises  are,  for 
the  most  part,  entirely  new. 

Of  the  five  short  preliminary  chapters,  the  three  which 
discuss    "The  Value   and   Importance   of   Composition," 


PREFACE  Vll 

"Methods  of  Study,"  and  "The  Student's  Equipment" 
are  intended  to  be  read  rather  than  studied.  The  reading 
of  these  chapters  and  the  careful  study  of  the  two  chapters 
on  "  Definitions "  and  "  Fundamental  Facts  and  Princi- 
ples "  will,  it  is  hoped,  furnish  the  student  with  a  helpful 
introduction  to  the  intelligent  study  of  the  main  discus- 
sion. The  numerous  practical  exercises  are  fully  as  im- 
portant as  the  text.  If  the  student  is  drilled  in  these 
exercises,  he  can  hardly  fail  to  make  a  practical  applica- 
tion of  the  principles  of  Composition.  The  Appendices 
will  be  found  valuable  for  reference.  The  large  list  of 
classified  theme-subjects  in  Appendix  E  is  likely  to  prove 
useful  to  many  a  puzzled  student  and  teacher. 

The  author  is  indebted,  consciously  and  unconsciously, 
to  the  work  of  many  writers  on  Rhetoric.  Doubtless  he 
owes  most  to  those  books  with  which  he  has  become 
familiar  either  as  student  or  teacher.  As  a  pupil  he  pored 
over  Hill's  "  Principles  of  Rhetoric  "  and  Wendell's  "  Eng- 
lish Composition."  As  a  teacher  he  has  used  Carpenter's 
"  Exercises  in  Rhetoric  and  English  Composition,"  New- 
comer's "  Elements  of  Rhetoric,"  and  Pearson's  "  Prin- 
ciples of  Composition."  Professor  Wendell's  and  Mr. 
Pearson's  books  have  appealed  to  him  as  containing  the 
soundest  exposition  of  rhetorical  principles,  and  his  debt 
to  these  writers  is  very  great.  Finally,  he  is  especially 
indebted  to  Professor  Fred  Lewis  Pattee,  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania State  College,  for  many  valuable  criticisms  and 
suggestions. 

A.  H.  E. 

State  College,  Pa., 
June  i,  1904. 


CONTENTS 
I.     PRELIMINARIES 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.    The  Value  and  Importance  of  Composition  .        .  3 

II.    Methods  of  Study 4  8 

III.  Definitions 15 

IV.  The  Student's  Equipment 24 

'V.    Fundamental  Facts  and  Principles          ...  29 

II.     THE   WHOLE  COMPOSITION 

VI.    The  Subject 37 

Exercises 43 

VII.    Unity  and  Selection 46 

Exercises 62 

VIII.     Coherence 66 

Exercises      .         . 84 

IX.    Proportion  and  Emphasis 89 

Exercises 105 

X.    The  Outline 108 

Exercises 116 

III.     THE   PARAGRAPH 

i 

XI.    The  Paragraph:  The  Principles  of  Composition  .  123 

Exercises 139 

XII.    The  Development  of  the  Paragraph       .        .        .143 

Exercises 160 

XIII.    The  Paragraph  Theme 166 

Exercises 175 

ix 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

XIV. 


XV. 


XVI. 


XVII. 


XVIII. 


XIX. 


XX. 


XXI. 


XXII. 


IV.     THE   SENTENCE 

PAGE 

Correctness 181 

Exercises . 198 

Unity  of  the  Sentence 205 

Exercises 220 

Coherence  of  the  Sentence 227 

Exercises 242 

Effectiveness 249 

Exercises 260 

Ease  and  Elegance 265 

Exercises *  272 

The  Revision  of  the  Sentence       ....  275 

Exercises £79 

V.     WORDS   AND   PHRASES 

Good  Use 287 

Exercises 302 

The  Choice  of  Words 306 

Exercises 315 

How  One  may  Improve  his  Vocabulary        .        .318 

Exercises 328 


APPENDICES 


Appendix  A.    Mechanical   Processes:    The   Manuscript; 

Capital  Letters;  Punctuation;  Exercises  .        .        .  333 

Appendix  B.    Spelling # .  348 

Appendix  C.    Directions     for     Themes.       Instructor's 

Marks 352 

Appendix  D.    Good  Use 355 

Appendix  E.    Additional  Theme-subjects  ....  368 

INDEX .381 


I 

PRELIMINARIES 


X 


COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 


CHAPTER   I 
THE  VALUE   AND   IMPORTANCE  OF  COMPOSITION 

No  doubt  the  student  who  takes  up  this  book  may  ask 
himself,  at  the  very  beginning  :  Why  should  I  pursue  the 
study  of  English  Composition?  What  practical  benefits 
can  be  derived  from  it  ? 

The  answer  to  these  questions  is  obvious.  The  impor- 
tance of  Composition  and  the  practical  value  of  skill  in  the 
art  of  writing  should  be  evident  to  all  thoughtful  people. 
No  one  can  escape  the  necessity  of  communicating  his 
thoughts  to  others.  Most  of  us  are  obliged  to  use  written 
language  every  day  of  our  lives.  Some  people,  it  is  true, 
possess  more  natural  aptitude  for  composition  than  others; 
but  skill  in  the  use  of  language  can  come  only  as  the  result 
of  careful  training.  The  mastery  of  any  art  comes  not  by 
chance,  but  by  long  study  and  practice.  The  inexperienced 
writer  is  likely  to  phrase  his  thoughts  crudely,  vaguely,  and 
inaccurately.  Even  those  who  seem  to  be  endowed  by 
nature  with  the  happy  gift  of  ease  and  aptness  in  the  ex- 
pression of  their  thoughts  find  that  invariable  clearness 
and  force  can  be  acquired  only  by  conscious  effort  and 
constant  vigilance.  The  study  and  the  practical  appli- 
cation of  the  principles  of  Composition  are  therefore  im- 
portant for  two  reasons :  first,  because  Composition  is  an 

3 


4  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

art  of  great  practical  value ;  and  second,  because  pro- 
ficiency in  this  art  can  be  acquired  only  by  practice. 

Some  practical  training  in  Composition  is  now  very 
properly  considered  an  essential  part  of  every  one's  edu- 
cation. No  part  of  the  discipline  that  one  usually  receives 
in  school  and  college  can  ever  be  turned  to  more  constant 
use  and  greater  practical  account  than  skill  acquired  in 
the  difficult  art  of  Composition.  The  ability  to  use  one's 
mother  tongue  is  in  itself  no  mean  education.  The  power 
to  express  our  thoughts  clearly  and  forcibly,  to  say  pre- 
cisely what  we  think  and  feel,  is  of  the  utmost  value  in  all 
the  affairs  of  our  everyday  life.  Letters  must  be  written, 
speeches  must  be  prepared,  articles  must  be  contributed 
to  literary,  scientific,  and  professional  periodicals,  ad- 
dresses must  be  delivered  before  popular  audiences  and 
professional  bodies,  reports  must  be  made  to  employers, 
and  expert  opinions  submitted  to  corporations ;  indeed, 
there  is  scarcely  any  limit  to  the  amount  and  the  variety 
of  composition  imposed  by  our  complex  modern  life. 
Nowadays  the  man  who  has  never  learned  to  write  with 
ease  and  precision  will  inevitably  find  himself  handicapped 
in  the  conduct  of  his  affairs. 

The  practical  value  of  Composition  has  been  well  stated 
by  Professor  Arlo  Bates.  "  It  is  perhaps  not  necessary," 
says  he,  "to  speak  much  of  the  value  of  the  art  of  Com- 
position ;  but  there  is  one  point  which  needs  to  be  touched 
upon.  There  is  a  prevalent  if  not  generally  spoken  idea 
that  while  this  skill  is  an  excellent  thing,  it  is  really  neces- 
sary to  nobody  save  professional  writers ;  that  while  per- 
sons who  give  their  lives  to  writing  must  of  course  master 
technique,  it  is  not  at  all  worth  while  for  others  to  bother 
about  a  thing  so  difficult.  That  this  error  is  less  wide- 
spread than  of  old  is  evident  from  the  increased  attention 


VALUE   AND   IMPORTANCE  5 

which  is  everywhere  given  to  Composition  in  all  modern 
schemes  of  education ;  but  it  survives  in  popular  mis- 
apprehension. The  truth  is,  on  the  contrary,  that  as 
society  is  organized  to-day  it  is  essential  that  every  man 
or  woman  who  hopes  to  make  his  or  her  way  at  least  to 
anything  like  eminence  even  comparative,  shall  be  able 
to  write  fairly  good  English.  In  a  world  so  largely  domi- 
nated by  the  printing-press  as  is  ours  in  these  modern 
days,  not  only  has  the  man  who  can  express  himself  in 
ink  a  manifest  advantage,  but  he  who  cannot  is  hampered 
from  the  start.  The  highest  skill  in  Composition  which 
can  be  acquired  is  of  instant  practical  value  in  every 
profession.  Students  of  technical  and  scientific  subjects 
seem  to  me  to  be  as  truly  acquiring  practical  training 
when  they  are  improving  their  skill  in  writing  as  when 
they  are  performing  experiments  in  the  laboratory  or 
smelting  ores  at  the  furnace.  In  reports  to  corporations, 
papers  on  sanitary  engineering  addressed  to  city  officials, 
schemes  for  railroads  or  telegraphs  laid  before  legislative 
committees,  they  will  have  need  of  all  the  literary  clever- 
ness that  they  can  compass,  all  the  literary  skill  which 
they  are  able  to  acquire.  Competition  is  fierce  all  along 
the  line,  and  facility  in  the  use  of  the  pen  counts  in  every 
trade  and  in  every  profession  no  less  truly  than  it  does 
among  avowed  writers."1 

Moreover,  the  immediate  practical  value  of  English 
Composition  is  not  the  only  reason  why  it  should  be 
studied.  Thoughtful  educators  realize  that  careful  train- 
ing in  the  use  of  written  language  is  also  valuable  as  a 
sure  means  of  intellectual  discipline.  There  are  in  fact 
few  studies  that  stimulate  into  constant  and  vigorous  activ- 

1  Arlo  Bates's  "  Talks  on  Writing  English,"  page  15.  Published  by  Houghton, 
Mifflin  and  Company.     Quoted  by  permission. 


6  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

ity  so  many  faculties  of  the  mind.  The  apparently  simple 
task  of  writing  an  ordinary  theme  may  become  a  valuable 
exercise  in  developing,  training,  and  strengthening  the  in- 
tellect. The  student  who  enters  upon  his  work  with  inter- 
est and  enthusiasm,  who  collects  and  arranges  his  materials 
with  thoughtful  care,  who  bends  all  his  intellectual  ener- 
gies to  the  task  of  overcoming  the  difficulties  that  stand  in 
the  way  of  clear  and  forcible  expression,  is  sure  to  find 
himself  steadily  gaining  in  strength  and  breadth  of  mind. 
His  powers  of  observation  will  become  more  accurate ;  his 
ability  to  make  nice  distinctions  will  be  exercised ;  his  sense 
of  proportion  will  be  cultivated ;  the  logical  faculty  of  see- 
ing things  in  their  right  relations  will  be  developed ;  the 
imagination  will  be  stimulated  and  strengthened ;  in  short, 
there  will  be  a  conscious  gain  in  general  accuracy,  clear- 
ness, and  vigor  of  the  most  important  intellectual  processes. 
The  mental  discipline  which  the  student  obtains  in  the 
writing  of  themes  depends  chiefly  upon  a  clear  conception 
of  his  thought  and  upon  the  correct  and  effective  use  of 
language.  The  things  with  which  he  has  to  work  are 
ideas  and  words.  He  has  to  deal  with  these  two  distinct 
elements,  —  the  thought  that  he  wishes  to  express,  and  the 
arbitrary  symbols  used  in  communicating  this  thought  to 
others.  Now  the  number  and  the  kinds  of  ideas  that  arise 
in  the  mind  of  man  are  practically  infinite.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  number  of  words  in  our  language,  although  very 
large,  is  yet  strictly  limited.  The  difficult  question,  then, 
that  confronts  every  student  of  Composition,  and  that  sets 
a  task  for  his  wits  and  gives  educational  value  to  his  work, 
is,  How  can  I  best  give  expression  to  the  variety  and  com- 
plexity of  the  thoughts  and  feelings  that  arise  within  me  ? 
How  can  I,  by  putting  into  significant  combinations  the 
words  of  my  limited  vocabulary,  communicate  to  others  the 


VALUE   AND    IMPORTANCE  7 

infinite  number  of  ideas  that  naturally  arise  in  the  thinking 
mind  ?  The  student  who  conscientiously  seeks  to  make  his 
practical  work  an  answer  to  this  question  is  likely  to  find 
Composition  a  study  of  absorbing  interest.  At  any  rate, 
he  need  not  find  the  task  of  writing  themes  a  dull  one ; 
certainly  he  will  not  find  it  unprofitable. 


CHAPTER   II 
METHODS   OF   STUDY 

Having  inquired  into  the  reasons  why  we  should  study 
Composition,  we  may  now  ask  ourselves :  What  plan  of 
study  shall  we  adopt  ?  How  can  we  acquire  the  ability  to 
write  clear,  forcible,  straightforward  English  ? 

A  glance  at  the  history  of  the  subject,  with  a  view  to  the 
methods  that  have  been  followed  at  various  times,  will  help 
us  to  answer  these  questions.  The  science  of  Rhetoric 
states  the  principles  which  underlie  the  art  of  Composition, 
and  which  serve  as  its  rational  basis.  This  science  is  a 
very  old  one ;  it  began  with  Aristotle's  Rhetoric  more 
than  twenty  centuries  ago,  and  since  then  it  has  stoutly 
held  its  place  in  ancient,  mediaeval,  and  modern  schemes 
of  education.  Up  to  the  present  time  there  have  been  four 
fairly  distinct  methods  of  studying  the  subject.  These  we 
may,  for  convenience,  call  the  theoretical,  the  literary,  the 
critical,  and  the  practical  methods.  It  will  be  worth  while 
to  note  the  nature,  the  aim,  and  the  value  of  each. 

I.  The  theoretical  method  of  studying  Rhetoric  is  based 
upon  Aristotle's  treatise.  He  formulated  the  principles 
of  rhetorical  science  with  a  view  chiefly  to  the  rhetor,  or 
public  speaker.  He  defined  Rhetoric  as  "  the  faculty  of 
discovering  all  the  possible  means  of  persuasion  on  any 
subject."  He  declared  that  the  rhetorician  must  "be  com- 
petent to  reason  logically,  to  study  human  characters  and 
virtues,  the  nature  and  quality  of  the  several  emotions,  the 

8 


METHODS   OF   STUDY  9 

sources  from  which  they  spring,  and  the  methods  of  excit- 
ing them."  A  rhetorical  equipment  of  this  sort  must  rest 
upon  a  broad  philosophical  basis,  and  must  involve  exten- 
sive study  in  such  fields  of  knowledge  as  Logic,  Ethics, 
and  Psychology.  It  would  be  a  mistake,  however,  to 
suppose  that  the  ancient  treatises  on  Rhetoric,  written 
by  Aristotle  and  Quintilian,  were  without  a  definite  prac- 
tical purpose.  They  aimed  to  teach  the  art  of  public 
speaking.  Aristotle  "  investigated  the  principles  of  Rhet- 
oric with  great  penetration.  Some  of  the  profoundest 
things  which  have  been  written  on  the  passions  and 
manners  of  men  are  to  be  found  in  his  treatise  on 
Rhetoric."  1 

In  later  periods  of  Greek  and  Roman  culture,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  mediaeval  universities,  Rhetoric  was  generally 
studied,  not  for  any  immediate  practical  end,  but  merely 
as  a  branch  of  knowledge.  Its  aim  was,  first,  to  set  forth 
the  principles  which  govern  the  use  of  spoken  and  written 
language,  usually  with  special  reference  to  argumentative 
discourse  ;  and  secondly,  to  seek  to  give  some  satisfactory 
explanation  of  these  principles.  Scholasticism  made  Rhet- 
oric a  dry  and  formal  science.  Dull  and  unprofitable  it 
remained  until  the  eighteenth  century.  It  was  then  that 
scholars  first  sought  to  widen  the  field  of  rhetorical  theory 
by  making  the  science  of  Rhetoric  apply  to  all  the  forms 
of  prose  literature.  In  1759  Dr.  Hugh  Blair  first  deliv- 
ered, in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  his  "  Lectures  on 
Rhetoric  and  Belles  Lettres."  In  his  introductory  lecture 
he  takes  pains  to  state  the  purpose  of  rhetorical  study  : 
"  The  exercise  of  taste  and  of  sound  criticism  is,  in  truth, 
one  of  the  most   improving   employments  of   the  human 

1  Dr.  Hugh  Blair's  "  Lectures  on  Rhetoric,"  Lecture  XXXIV,  on  "  Means  of 
Improving  in  Eloquence." 


IO  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

understanding.  To  apply  the  principles  of  good  sense  to 
composition  and  discourse  ;  to  examine  what  is  beautiful 
and  why  it  is  so ;  to  employ  ourselves  in  distinguishing 
accurately  between  the  specious  and  the  solid,  between 
affected  and  natural  ornament,  must  certainly  improve  us 
not  a  little  in  the  most  valuable  part  of  all  philosophy,  the 
philosophy  of  human  nature."  The  scope  of  his  work  is 
shown  by  the  way  in  which  he  divides  his  subject :  "  First, 
some  introductory  dissertations  on  the  nature  of  taste  and 
upon  the  sources  of  its  pleasures ;  secondly,  the  considera- 
tion of  language ;  thirdly,  of  style ;  fourthly,  of  eloquence, 
properly  so-called,  or  public  speaking  in  its  different 
kinds;  lastly,  a  critical  examination  of  the  most  distin- 
guished species  of  composition,  both  in  prose  and  verse." 

It  is  clear  that  Dr.  Blair's  treatise  is  based  upon  the 
Rhetoric  and  the  Poetics  of  Aristotle.  Dr.  Campbell, 
whose  "  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric  "  was  written  at  about  the 
same  time,  and  Dr.  Whately,  whose  "  Elements  of  Rhet- 
oric "  appeared  more  than  fifty  years  later,  must  both,  in 
like  manner,  own  Aristotle  as  their  master.  Although  the 
study  was  still  theoretical,  it  should  be  noted  that  two 
important  additions  had  been  made  to  Aristotle's  concep- 
tion of  Rhetoric :  first,  its  field  was  extended  so  as  to  in- 
clude all  forms  of  literature ;  and  second,  it  was  made  to 
comprise  the  principles  of  good  taste  and  their  application 
to  the  critical  study  of  literature. 

2.  These  additions  naturally  lead  up  to  what  have  been 
called  the  literary  and  the  critical  methods  of  study.  The 
literary  method  depends,  for  its  results,  upon  a  study  of 
the  great  masterpieces  of  literature.  It  aims  to  obtain 
skill  in  expression  by  careful  literary  analysis  and  the  con- 
scious imitation  of  the  works  of  great  writers,  as  well  as  by 
wide  reading  and  the  unconscious  absorption  of  the  good 


METHODS   OF   STUDY  II 

qualities  of  style.  "The  true  way  to  achieve  clearness, 
force,  and  elegance  in  our  English,"  says  an  advocate  of 
this  method,  "is  not  to  study  the  rules  laid  down  in  the 
rhetorics,  but  to  become  familiar  with  writing  that  is  clear, 
forcible,  and  elegant.  The  knowledge  most  directly  fun- 
damental to  intelligent  control  of  one's  own  expression  is 
an  historical  acquaintance  with  the  language  and  the  litera- 
ture. The  manuals  of  Rhetoric  fill  the  youth's  mind  with 
prohibitions  of  objectionable  words  and  constructions ;  but 
the  fund  of  diction  on  which  the  youth  must  learn  to  draw 
is  our  standard  prose.  The  main  thing  is  to  become  free 
of  the  English  vocabulary  and  to  acquire  the  habit  of  ele- 
gant choice  and  construction  by  contact  with  interesting 
writing."  Wide  reading  and  literary  study  are  of  un- 
doubted value  to  all  students  of  Composition ;  and  it  must 
be  admitted  that  we  can  scarcely  hope  to  acquire  the 
higher  qualities  of  style  without  becoming  familiar  with 
the  masterpieces  of  English  prose. 

3.  The  critical  method  of  studying  Rhetoric  makes  use 
of  a  much  more  minute  kind  of  criticism.  It  concerns 
itself  chiefly  with  matters  of  detail  in  the  realm  of  Good 
Use,  and  with  particular  rhetorical  devices.  Such  criticism 
is  verbal  and  grammatical  rather  than  literary.  At  its 
worst,  it  tends  to  "  fill  the  student's  mind  with  prohibi- 
tions of  objectionable  words  and  constructions."  At  its 
best,  it  places  the  proper  and  the  improper  forms  side  by 
side,  in  order  that  the  student  may  choose  the  good  and 
avoid  the  bad.  The  value  of  the  critical  method  lies  in  the 
opportunity  which  it  gives  the  student  to  examine  his  work 
and  to  get  rid  of  faulty  and  feeble  modes  of  expression. 

4.  Within  recent  years,  partly  no  doubt  as  a  result  of 
the  strong  practical  tendency  in  our  modern  education,  an 
effort  has  been  made  to  find  a  more  practical  method  of 


12  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

studying  English  Composition.  A  generation  ago  many 
schools  and  colleges  paid  far  more  attention  to  the  science 
of  Rhetoric  than  to  the  art  of  Composition.  As  a  result 
they  imparted  much  excellent  theory,  but  gave  very  little 
practice  in  writing.  Educators  did  not  seem  to  realize 
how  important  it  is  that  students  should  first  of  all  learn 
how  to  write  clear  and  vigorous  English.  To  give  the 
learner  a  maximum  amount  of  theory  and  a  minimum 
amount  of  practice  seemed  to  be  the  general  rule.  An 
exhaustive  discussion  of  the  figures  of  speech  was,  for 
instance,  considered  an  essential  part  of  every  text-book  on 
Rhetoric.  The  student,  it  is  true,  often  received  many  valu- 
able suggestions  in  the  domain  of  literary  interpretation 
and  criticism,  but  very  little  helpful  guidance  in  the  use  of 
his  mother  tongue.  A  few  writers  on  the  subject,  in  their 
effort  to  be  practical,  made  the  further  mistake  of  giving 
too  much  prominence  to  grammar  and  mechanical  pro- 
cesses, and  of  laying  down  for  the  student  a  bewildering 
number  of  rules,  instead  of  emphasizing  a  few  fundamental 
general  principles. 

The  practical  method  of  studying  Composition  is  based 
upon  the  simple  principle  that  we  learn  to  do  a  thing  by 
doing  it.  Constant  and  painstaking  practice  is  the  only 
way  to  obtain  proficiency  in  any  art.  No  one,  for  instance, 
could  learn  to  cook  merely  by  reading  the  cook-book,  or  by 
listening  to  lectures  on  the  scientific  principles  of  cooking. 
In  like  manner  no  one  can  learn  to  write  with  skill  and 
ease  except  by  extensive  practice.  It  is  only  thus  that  we 
can  become  familiar  with  the  instruments  of  expression. 
By  no  other  method  can  we  hope  to  overcome  the  difficul- 
ties in  our  way.  We  must  write  frequently  ;  we  must  criti- 
cise our  work  closely ;  we  must  aim  at  positive  excellence, 
and  seek  to  avoid  what  we  know  to  be  weak  and  faulty. 


METHODS   OF   STUDY  1 3 

The  aim  of  practical  training  in  Composition  is  twofold : 
it  should  seek,  first,  to  give  the  student  the  power  to  express 
his  thought  correctly,  clearly,  and  forcibly ;  and  secondly, 
to  impart  to  him  the  ability  to  write  with  some  degree  of 
ease  and  rapidity.  It  is  not  enough  that  he  should  be  able 
to  write  well ;  he  should  also  learn  to  write  rapidly.  In 
order  to  accomplish  the  first  of  these  objects,  he  should 
carefully  plan  and  write  at  least  one  theme  a  week.  These 
themes  should  be  examined  and  criticised  by  the  instructor. 
They  should  then  be  returned  to  the  student  for  revision  in 
accordance  with  the  teacher's  criticisms  and  suggestions.1 
To  accomplish  the  second  object,  frequent  exercises  in 
rapid  composition  should  also  be  given  in  the  class- 
room. Fifteen  minutes  can  readily  be  set  aside  each 
day  for  such  a  short  impromptu  theme.2 

In  regard  to  the  criticism  of  themes,  both  teacher  and 
student  should  "bear  in  mind  that  the  object  of  such 
corrections  is  not  to  give  the  student  a  perfectly  correct 
style,  but  rather  to  give  him  the  ability  to  do  his  correcting 
for  himself.  When  he  comes  to  work  of  his  own,  what- 
ever it  may  be,  that  calls  for  written  expression,  he  will 
have  no  one  at  hand  to  correct  it."  The  work  in  school 
and  college,  then,  "  should  aim  not  so  much  to  give  him  a 
perfectly  correct  style  as  to  give  him  the  instinct  for  self- 
correction  and  improvement.  Any  one  who  has  got  so 
much  can  look  out  for  himself,  and  on  looking  out  will  find 
everywhere  means  for  correcting  and  improving  what  he 
has  written."3  In  his  practical  exercises,  therefore,  the  stu- 
dent should  seek  to  acquire  the  habit  of  critical  revision 
and  the  instinct  for  self-improvement. 

The  method  of  study,  then,  to  be  followed  in  this  book 

1  See  Appendix  C.  2  See  Chapter  XIII  on  "  The  Paragraph  Theme." 

8  "  Constructive  Rhetoric,"  by  Edward  Everett  Hale,  Jr.,  page  viii. 


14  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

is  intensely  practical.  The  student  can  acquire  skill  only 
by  painstaking  practice.  He  should,  however,  make  the 
other  methods  of  study  tributary  to  his  practical  purpose: 
he  should  turn  to  the  science  of  Rhetoric  for  help  and  guid- 
ance in  his  practical  exercises  ;  he  should  consider  carefully 
the  criticisms  applied  to  his  themes  by  his  instructor,  that 
he  may  eventually  become  fully  competent  to  revise  his 
own  work  ;  and  finally,  by  wide  reading  and  literary  study 
he  should  strive  to  enrich  his  vocabulary  and  even  achieve 
some  of  the  higher  qualities  of  style. 


CHAPTER   III 

DEFINITIONS 

Composition  is  the  art  of  expressing  thought  and  feel- 
ing by  means  of  words.  Without  some  such  medium  of 
communication  as  language  it  would  be  impossible  for  us 
to  make  our  thoughts  known  to  any  one  else;  for  our 
thoughts  and  feelings  are  in  reality  immaterial  things : 
they  have  neither  form  nor  substance.  It  is  the  object  of 
written  or  printed  discourse  to  give  them  a  material  form, 
that  they  may  thus  be  made  known  to  others.  We  are  im- 
pelled by  a  strong  natural  impulse  to  share  our  thoughts  and 
feelings  with  those  around  us.  This  desire  has  led  to  the 
invention  of  certain  devices,  or  arts  of  expression,  which 
aim  to  make  others  acquainted  with  what  is  passing  in  our 
own  minds.  Of  these  devices  written  language  is  the 
most  convenient  and  practicable  means  of  telling  others 
what  we  think  and  feel.  English  Composition  may  be 
defined  as  the  art  of  using  the  English  language  skilfully 
and  effectively. 

We  have  called  Composition  an  art  rather  than  a  science. 
The  distinction  is  an  important  one.  Science  is  theo- 
retical; art  is  practical.  A  science  is  simply  a  branch 
of  knowledge,  as,  for  example,  Physics  or  Political 
Economy.  It  consists  of  a  body  of  organized  and  sys- 
tematized knowledge  concerning  some  particular  class  of 
things.  It  states  the  essential  facts  and  the  general 
truths  about  some  given  subject.     For  instance,  we  speak 

15 


16  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC 

of  Psychology  as  a  science  because  it  tells  us  what  is 
known  about  the  activities  and  the  processes  of  the  mind. 
An  art,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the  method  of  performing 
some  operation.  It  is  the  way  in  which  a  thing  is  done, 
the  method  by  which  a  process  is  carried  out.  The  object 
of  an  art  is  to  do  something  or  to  make  something.  We 
may,  for  instance,  speak  of  the  art  of  cooking,  the  art  of 
debate,  or  the  art  of  bookbinding,  as  well  as  of  the  art  of 
Composition. 

There  is  often,  however,  a  close  relation  between  a  par- 
ticular art  and  a  particular  science.  The  general  principles 
that  underlie  some  common  process  often  form  a  distinct 
science.  This  is  especially  true  of  arts  that  have  long 
been  practised.  The  general  principles  upon  which  the 
successful  practice  of  a  given  art  depends  are  expressed 
in  a  body  of  systematic  knowledge  and  practical  directions 
which  may  properly  be  called  a  science.  Thus  we  may 
speak  both  of  the  art  and  of  the  science  of  cooking.  In 
like  manner  it  has  been  possible  to  find  a  scientific  basis 
for  the  art  of  Composition.  This  science,  or  statement  of 
general  laws  which  govern  the  art  of  Composition,  is  called 
Rhetoric.  As  a  science,  Rhetoric  states  the  theory  or  gen- 
eral principles  upon  which  clear  and  effective  discourse 
depends.  Composition  makes  a  practical  application  of 
these  principles  to  the  art  of  writing. 

We  have  said  that  Composition  is  the  art  of  expressing 
our  ideas  by  means  of  words ;  for  there  are  other  arts  of 
expression  which  make  use  of  different  means.  The 
so-called  fine  arts,  such  as  sculpture,  painting,  architecture, 
and  music,  employ  each  a  different  medium.  The  sculp- 
tor's bronze  or  marble,  the  painter's  canvas  and  colors,  and 
the  musician's  "  concord  of  sweet  sounds  "  have  all  their 
peculiar  advantages  as  means  of  expressing  certain  ideas 


DEFINITIONS  1 7 

and  feelings.  From  the  very  nature,  however,  of  the 
means  that  these  arts  employ,  they  are  not  the  most  con- 
venient methods  of  making  others  acquainted  with  our 
ordinary  thoughts.  Language  is  by  far  the  most  useful 
and  practicable  medium  of  expression.  Words,  therefore, 
variously  combined,  form  the  most  common  means  of  com- 
municating our  thoughts. 

Words  are  nothing  but  the  signs  or  symbols  of  certain 
ideas.  The  ideas  that  the  words  stand  for  are,  as  we  have 
seen,  invisible  and  immaterial  things.  Written  words,  by 
becoming  the  symbols  of  these  ideas,  serve  to  give  them  a 
material  and  visible  body.  Our  ideas  are  thus  put  into  a 
form  which  the  eye  can  see.  We  unconsciously  learn  to 
interpret  a  given  word,  whether  we  hear  it  in  ordinary 
speech  or  see  it  on  the  printed  page,  as  the  sign  of  a  par- 
ticular idea. 

By  combining  and  arranging  words  in  the  form  of  a  sen- 
tence we  give  expression  to  a  series  of  related  ideas  called 
a  thought.  It  thus  becomes  the  function  of  each  sentence 
to  express  a  complete  thought.  Again,  a  series  of  sen- 
tences all  bearing  upon  the  same  topic  forms  a  paragraph. 
That  is  to  say,  it  has  become  customary  to  put  into  one 
paragraph  all  the  connected  thoughts  about  a  particular 
topic  or  convenient  subdivision  of  a  subject.  In  like  man- 
ner, a  series  of  paragraphs  which  are  all  related  to  the 
same  general  subject  usually  forms,  when  they  are  taken 
together,  the  largest  unit  of  expression,  which  we  call  the 
whole  composition. 

The  units  of  expression,  then,  with  which  we  have  to 
deal  in  the  study  of  Composition  are  Words,  Sentences, 
Paragraphs,  and  Whole  Compositions.  These  have  for 
convenience  been  called  "  the  elements  of  style."  This 
term  merely  indicates  that  in  analyzing  any  given  piece  of 


1 8  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

written  discourse  and  in  resolving  it  into  its  component 
parts,  we  must  pass  successively  from  the  whole  composi- 
tion to  the  paragraph,  from  the  paragraph  to  the  sentence, 
and  from  the  sentence  to  the  individual  words  that  com- 
pose it.  Each  of  these  units  of  expression,  or  "  elements 
of  style,"  will  in  turn  receive  detailed  discussion. 

The  question  naturally  arises,  Which  of  these  elements 
of  style  or  parts  of  discourse  shall  be  taken  up  first  ?  It 
has  been  the  experience  of  teachers  that  it  is  best  to  begin 
their  discussion  of  the  principles  of  Composition  with  some 
directions  concerning  the  whole  theme.  After  the  whole 
composition  has  been  treated  we  shall  see  how  the  princi- 
ples of  Composition  apply  also  to  the  paragraph  and  to 
the  sentence.  The  reason  for  following  this  order  is  that 
the  student  begins  his  practical  work  of  theme-writing  by 
composing  a  whole  rather  than  a  part.  It  seems  desirable 
to  begin,  therefore,  not  with  the  sentence  or  with  the  para- 
graph, but  with  the  whole  theme,  in  order  that  the  student 
may  thus  receive  some  help  at  the  very  beginning  of  his 
work ;  for  it  is  at  the  beginning  that  he  feels  most  need 
of  practical  advice.  After  these  opening  chapters,  then, 
which  aim  to  give  some  important  preliminary  suggestions, 
we  shall  show  how  the  principles  of  Composition  apply, 
first,  to  the  whole  composition;  next,  to  the  paragraph; 
and  lastly,  to  the  sentence. 

We  have  defined  Composition  as  the  art  of  expressing 
our  thoughts  and  feelings  by  means  of  words.  Most 
writers  who  have  discussed  this  subject  have  defined  Style 
in  much  the  same  way.  There  have,  of  course,  been  many 
widely  different  definitions  of  Style,  most  of  them  conceived 
from  a  literary  rather  than  a  rhetorical  point  of  view.  It 
is  therefore  desirable  to  state  just  what  the  word  stands 
for  in  the  study  of  Rhetoric.     By  Style  is  meant  the  mode 


DEFINITIONS  19 

or  manner  in  which  we  phrase  our  thoughts  and  feelings. 
Our  ideas  and  emotions  are  the  subject-matter  of  Composi- 
tion. The  term  "Style"  designates  the  way  in  which  we 
give  expression  to  this  subject-matter  by  means  of  words. 
In  this  sense  Style  refers  to  two  distinct  things :  first,  to 
the  selection  of  suitable  words  for  the  expression  of  our 
ideas;  and  second,  to  the  best  method  of  combining  and 
arranging  these  words,  and  even  such  larger  elements  of 
Composition  as  phrases,  clauses,  and  sentences.  To  refer 
to  the  first  of  these  two  things,  we  generally  use  the  word 
"  Diction."  With  the  second,  that  is,  the  proper  form  and 
effective  arrangement  of  the  several  elements  of  Composi- 
tion, the  largest  part  of  our  discussion  will  necessarily  deal. 
When  both  the  choice  of  words  and  the  arrangement  of 
parts  are  considered  together  in  a  finished  piece  of  writing, 
it  is  often  convenient  to  use  the  expression  "  qualities  of 
style  "  to  refer  to  the  characteristics  of  good  composition. 
It  would  of  course  be  easy  to  enumerate  many  desirable 
qualities  or  characteristics  of  effective  writing;  but  they 
all  so  shade  off  into  one  another  that,  for  our  purpose,  it 
is  scarcely  necessary  to  mention  more  than  three.  These 
preeminent  qualities  of  style  are  Clearness,  Force,  and 
Elegance.  To  attain  these  qualities,  it  is  necessary,  first, 
that  we  say,  precisely  and  unmistakably,  just  what  we 
mean;  secondly,  that  we  write  with  such  sincerity,  con- 
viction, and  earnestness  as  to  hold  our  reader's  attention 
and  to  impress  our  thought  and  feeling  Upon  him ;  thirdly, 
that  we  set  down  our  ideas  as  skilfully  and  artistically  as 
we  can,  seeking  not  so  much  to  find  ornament  and  mere 
verbal  finery  as  to  avoid  any  violation  of  propriety  and 
good  taste.  These  three  qualities  of  style  are  the  cardinal 
virtues  of  all  good  writing;  and  we  should  have  them  in 
mind  and  strive  to  attain  them  in  all  our  compositions. 


20  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

A  good  style,  or  the  clear,  correct,  and  effective  expres- 
sion of  thought,  depends  upon  the  writer's  close  attention 
to  two  things:  (i)  he  should  not  violate  Good  Use;  and 
(2)  he  should  apply  to  his  work  the  principles  of  Composi- 
tion. Each  of  these  requires  some  definition  and  explana- 
tion. 

Good  Use  is  a  name  given  to  the  present  fashion  in 
language.  In  any  living  language,  the  spelling,  the  mean- 
ing, and  the  grammatical  forms  of  words  differ  from  time 
to  time.  The  language  of  Chaucer  or  of  Shakespeare, 
for  instance,  differs  in  all  three  of  these  respects  from  the 
language  that  is  spoken  and  written  to-day.  A  consider- 
able change  has  taken  place  even  in  the  pronunciation  of 
some  words,  like  tea  and  join  and  oblige,  for  example, 
since  the  time  of  Pope.  Within  the  past  century  a  very 
noticeable  change  has  also  occurred  in  the  use  of  capital 
letters  and  marks  of  punctuation.  It  would  be  hard  —  in 
most  cases  impossible  —  to  give  any  rational  explanation 
of  how  these  changes  came  about.  Reason  cannot  justify 
the  present  fashion  in  words  any  more  than  it  can  explain 
the  prevailing  mode  in  manners  or  in  dress.  Good  Use, 
then,  is  an  arbitrary  and  conventional  thing,  the  result  of 
custom  and  common  agreement;  but  it  is  not,  for  this 
reason,  any  the  less  binding.  We  should  no  more  think 
of  violating  what  is  generally  admitted  to  be  good  usage 
in  language  than  of  disregarding  the  recognized  usages  of 
polite  society ;  for'  if  we  offend  against  good  usage  in  lan- 
guage or  in  behavior,  we  are  likely  to  fall  into  disrepute 
among  our  associates. 

Good  Use,  it  has  been  said,  includes  such  matters  as 
spelling,  grammar,  pronunciation,  the  meaning  of  words, 
and  the  use  of  capital  letters  and  marks  of  punctuation. 
In  these  matters  many  rules  have  been  laid  down  for  our 


DEFINITIONS  21 

guidance.  Most  of  us  have  already  been  obliged  to  famil- 
iarize ourselves  with  some  such  body  of  rules.  If  we  were 
to  examine  some  of  these  rules,  we  should  notice  that  their 
application  is  restricted,  and  that  they  usually  refer  to 
matters  of  detail. 

The  principles  of  Composition  differ  from  the  rules  of 
Good  Use  in  two  important  respects :  in  the  first  place, 
these  principles,  as  will  be  seen  in  our  discussion  of  them, 
have  a  very  broad  and  general  application  ;  in  the  second 
place,  they  rest  upon  a  rational  basis.  They  are  not  of 
the  nature  of  those  specific  rules  which  set  forth  the  pre- 
vailing fashion  in  language  and  arbitrarily  restrict  us  to 
what  has  met  with  the  approval  of  the  best  writers ;  but 
they  have  their  sanction  in  reason,  experience,  and  com- 
mon sense. 

These  general  principles  of  Composition,  unlike  the 
rules  and  requirements  of  Good  Use,  do  not  always  have 
precisely  the  same  application  to  all  kinds  of  written  dis- 
course. It  is  both  convenient  and  necessary,  therefore,  to 
make  some  classification  of  the  different  kinds  of  writing 
according  to  their  nature  and  purpose.  The  most  common 
types  of  Composition  are  called  Narration,  Description, 
Exposition,  and  Argument,  (i)  A  narrative  tells  how  a 
series  of  events  occurred.  The  numerous  works  of  history 
and  of  fiction  are  familiar  examples  of  narrative  writing. 

(2)  A  description  delineates  the  outward  aspect  of  an  ob- 
ject ;  its  aim  is  to  tell  how  a  particular  thing  appears  to 
our  senses.  For  instance,  a  theme  on  the  subject  "  How 
my  Room    Looks"  would   be  an  exercise  in  description. 

(3)  An  exposition  explains  or  expounds  something.  Ordi- 
narily exposition  means  simply  explanatory  writing,  In  a 
restricted  sense  the  term  is  sometimes  made  to  mean  tbe 
unfolding  of  a  general  idea.     A  theme  on  "  Social  Life  in 


22  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

the  Country,"  a  statement  of  the  symptoms  of  typhoid 
fever,  or  a  discussion  of  the  uses  of  natural  gas,  will  serve 
as  an  example  of  expository  writing.  (4)  An  argument 
aims  to  prove  the  truth  or  falsity  of  a  proposition.  "  A 
Plea  for  Good  Roads  "  would,  for  instance,  be  a  specimen 
of  argumentative  writing  designed  to  establish  the  propo- 
sition that  "our  country  should  have  good  roads."  It 
often  happens  that  the  characteristics  of  several  of  these 
types  are  combined  in  a  given  piece  of  writing,  and  some- 
times it  may  be  hard  to  classify  a  particular  composition 
under  any  one  head.  The  classification,  however,  is  ex- 
haustive enough  to  answer  our  practical  purpose. 

To  sum  up,  Composition  is  the  art  of  communicating 
thought  and  feeling  by  means  of  words.  Rhetoric  is  the 
science  that  states  the  principles  underlying  this  art. 
There  are  other  arts  of  expression,  but  language  is  the 
most  common  and  convenient.  Words  are  the  instruments 
which  this  art  employs  as  the  symbols  of  our  ideas.  When 
we  put  a  number  of  words  together  so  as  to  express  cer- 
tain related  ideas,  we  form  a  sentence.  Likewise  a  group 
of  sentences  that  refer  to  the  same  topic  makes  up  a  para- 
graph. A  series  of  paragraphs  bearing  upon  the  same 
general  subject  constitutes  a  whole  composition.  Of  these 
elements  of  style  the  whole  composition  should  be  studied 
first,  because  the  student  begins  his  work,  not  by  com- 
posing isolated  sentences  and  paragraphs,  but  by  planning 
whole  compositions.  In  his  diction,  in  the  grammatical 
construction  of  his  sentences,  and  in  the  mechanical  de- 
tails of  his  work,  the  writer  should  not  run  counter  to  the 
requirements  of  Good  Use,  which  is  only  another  name  for 
the  present  fashion  in  language.  The  combination  and 
arrangement  of  words,  sentences,  and  paragraphs  are 
governed  by  certain  principles  of  Composition,  which  rest 


DEFINITIONS  23 

upon  a  rational  basis,  and  which  have  a  very  broad  and 
general  application.  Good  Use,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
often  arbitrary  in  its  requirements,  and  is  usually  definite 
and  specific  in  its  application  to  certain  details  of  the 
writer's  task.  It  should  also  be  noted  that  there  are  four 
distinct  kinds  of  Composition,  usually  called  Narration,  De- 
scription, Exposition,  and  Argument.  Some  of  the  princi- 
ples of  Composition  occasionally  have  a  special  application 
to  each  of  these  types. 


CHAPTER   IV 
THE   STUDENT'S   EQUIPMENT 

The  student  must  have  some  definite  equipment  for 
theme-writing.  He  should  not  enter  upon  his  practical 
work  without  some  degree  of  preparation.  It  is  worth 
while  for  him  to  know  what  this  equipment  should  be,  in 
order  that  he  may  be  constantly  improving  and  increasing 
it.  It  is  taken  for  granted  that  his  observation  and  experi- 
ence have  given  him  a  stock  of  thoughts,  opinions,  con- 
victions, and  impressions.  His  previous  education  and 
knowledge  of  life  have  supplied  him  with  a  considerable 
body  of  general  information.  On  many  subjects  he  has 
clearly  defined  thoughts ;  on  many  questions  he  holds 
definite  opinions  and  convictions.  His  contact  with  men 
and  things  has  given  him  interesting  impressions.  All 
this  stock  of  acquired  knowledge  and  experience  supplies 
him  with  the  first  requisite  for  his  work,  —  something  to 
write  about. 

It  will  pay  the  student  to  keep  adding  to  this  fund  of 
material  from  which  all  interesting  composition  must  be 
drawn.  Of  course,  as  his  experience  increases  and  his 
education  proceeds,  he  is  constantly  adding  to  his  stock  of 
ideas,  opinions,  and  impressions.  Besides  this  steady 
increase,  there  is  nothing  that  will  help  him  so  much  as 
the  habit  of  close  and  accurate  observation.  The  man 
who  will  but  train  his  eyes  to  see  will  find  suitable  subject- 
matter  all  around   him.     The   world,    with   its   countless 

24 


THE    STUDENT'S    EQUIPMENT  25 

objects  of  interest  and  beauty,  with  its  myriad  creatures, 
with  its  varied  human  concerns,  pursuits,  diversions,  and 
passions,  will  furnish  him  with  a  never  failing  supply  of 
material.  Let  him  but  cultivate  his  powers  of  observa- 
tion. Let  him  get  into  the  habit  of  using  his  eyes  and 
his  ears  to  some  purpose.  If  he  will  only  keep  his  senses 
alert  and  his  mind  receptive,  his  ordinary  surroundings 
and  his  daily  life,  with  its  manifold  interests,  will  prove 
to  be  an  inexhaustible  storehouse  of   subjects  and  ideas. 

In  the  second  place,  as  a  necessary  part  of  his  equip- 
ment, the  student  should  master  the  principles  of  Composi- 
tion. It  is  for  this  purpose  that  the  science  of  Rhetoric  is 
taught.  Experience  has  shown  that  successful  work  de- 
pends upon  certain  principles  of  selection,  arrangement,  and 
structure.  The  inexperienced  writer  must  learn  these  prin- 
ciples in  order  that  he  may  apply  them  to  his  practical  work. 

In  the  next  place,  the  student  should  already  be  famil- 
iar with  many  matters  of  Good  Use.  He  should  spell  cor- 
rectly ;  he  should  command  a  fair-sized  working  vocabulary 
of  words  that  are  in  recognized  good  use,  and  he  should  be 
constantly  increasing  it ;  he  should  have  a  fair  knowledge 
of  English  grammar  and  a  familiarity  with  English  idiom  ; 
and  he  should  know  what  Good  Use  has  prescribed  in 
regard  to  punctuation,  the  use  of  capital  letters,  and  cer- 
tain other  mechanical  features  of  his  work.  These  things 
may  be  called  the  mechanics  of  expression ;  and  it  must 
be  evident  that  they  are  indispensable  in  the  equipment  of 
any  one  who  wishes  to  write  well.  In  fact,  the  man  who 
is  lacking  in  these  bare  essentials  is  commonly  judged  to 
be  either  illiterate  or  poorly  educated. 

It  is  especially  important  that  the  student  know  how  to 
spell  ordinary  words.  A  sufficient  reason  for  this  require- 
ment is  that  the  ability  to  spell  correctly  is  usually  taken  as 


26  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

a  test  of  one's  education.  In  this  matter,  as  in  everything 
else  that  requires  a  knowledge  of  Good  Use,  the  main  thing 
for  the  student  to  do  is  to  keep  a  sharp  lookout  for  his  own 
deficiencies.  He  should  resolve  not  to  make  the  same  mis- 
take twice.  It  is  hardly  likely  that  the  worst  speller  among 
college  students  commonly  misspells  more  than  one  hun- 
dred or  one  hundred  and  fifty  different  words.  If  he  can 
find  out  what  these  words  are,  it  ought  not  to  be  a  very 
difficult  task  for  him  to  improve  his  orthography.  It  is  to 
be  feared  that  misspelled  words  in  a  written  exercise  are 
generally  due  to  laziness  or  undue  haste.  When  one  is  in 
doubt,  the  dictionary  stands  ready  to  befriend  him.1 

Next,  the  student  should  have  a  good  working  vocabu- 
lary ;  and  he  should  constantly  strive  to  make  this  vocabu- 
lary more  copious.  Indeed,  no  part  of  his  equipment  is 
more  important  than  this.  The  need  of  words,  which  are 
the  instruments  of  expression,  is  fundamental.  We  require 
a  large  vocabulary  before  we  can  express  much  complexity 
or  much  variety  of  thought.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
the  working  vocabulary  of  the  average  college  freshman 
contains  about  twelve  hundred  words.  The  writer  of 
themes  should  realize  that  such  a  vocabulary  is  a  very 
slender  equipment  for  the  work  of  written  expression. 
As  his  education  advances  he  is  constantly  widening 
his  range  of  thought  and  becoming  familiar  with  new 
ideas.  For  the  adequate  expression  of  these  new  ideas, 
he  should  therefore  make  it  a  matter  of  conscience 
to  enlarge  and  enrich  his  vocabulary  by  every  available 
means.  For  supplying  this  deficiency  in  his  equipment 
he  will  find  the  habit  of  looking  up  all  new  words  in  the 
dictionary  exceedingly  valuable.2 

1  See  Appendix  B. 

2  Read  Chapter  XXII  on  "  How  One  may  Improve  his  Vocabulary." 


THE   STUDENT'S   EQUIPMENT  27 

The  habit  of  choosing  his  words  with  care  and  of  putting 
them  together  according  to  English  grammar  and  English 
idiom  is  also  an  important  element  in  the  student's  equip- 
ment. The  importance  of  this  habit  is  well  emphasized  in 
Dean  Swift's  famous  definition  of  a  good  style  as  consist- 
ing of  "  proper  words  in  proper  places."  The  writer  should 
seek  to  acquire  a  habit  of  mind  that  will  lead  him  to  note 
the  exact  meaning  and  value  of  words.  This  habit,  if 
judiciously  exercised,  can  be  made  to  yield  an  added  value 
to  his  reading.  By  learning  to  appreciate  the  power  of 
words  and  the  value  of  the  apt  phrase  in  the  writings  of 
others,  he  will  receive  help  and  stimulus  in  the  choice 
of  words  and  in  the  phrasing  of  his  thoughts. 

There  are  several  purely  mechanical  features  of  the  stu- 
dent's work  which  are  determined  by  convenience  and  Good 
Use.  In  such  mechanical  processes  as  the  preparation  of 
manuscript  and  the  correct  use  of  capital  letters  and  marks 
of  punctuation,  custom  prescribes  pretty  clearly  what  we 
ought  to  do  and  what  we  ought  to  avoid.  If,  then,  we  are 
to  make  our  work  correct  and  accurate,  we  must  learn  at 
the  outset  what  Good  Use,  or  uniformity  of  custom,  re- 
quires of  us  in  these  mechanical  processes  of  composition. 
Order  and  clearness  are  often  conserved  by  attention  to 
mechanical  details.1 

We  may  say,  then,  by  way  of  summary,  that  the  stu- 
dent, in  writing  themes,  will  find  use  for  his  knowledge, 
experience,  and  previous  mental  training.  The  fund  of 
information  and  experience  which  he  has  already  acquired 
will  furnish  him  with  interesting  subject-matter  for  his 
themes ;  and  the  habit  of  observation  will  aid  him  in  f  ur- 

1  In  Appendix  A,  on  "  Mechanical  Processes,"  will  be  found  some  practical 
directions  for  the  preparation  of  manuscript,  a  brief  statement  of  the  rules  for  the 
use  of  capital  letters,  and  a  discussion  of  the  subject  of  punctuation. 


28  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

ther  increasing  this  stock.  He  should  study  the  principles 
of  his  craft  in  order  that  he  may  apply  them  to  his  work. 
He  should  have  obtained  something  like  mastery  over  such 
elementary  matters  of  Good  Use  as  spelling,  grammar, 
punctuation,  and  the  use  of  capitals.  He  should  have  a 
serviceable  working  vocabulary  of  words  in  recognized 
good  use,  and  should  be  constantly  improving  and  increas- 
ing it.  In  the  preparation  of  his  manuscript  he  should  be 
willing  to  pay  careful  attention  to  correctness  of  form  in 
those  mechanical  details  which  have  been  determined  by 
custom  and  convenience. 


CHAPTER  V 

FUNDAMENTAL   FACTS   AND   PRINCIPLES 

The  student  of  English  Composition  should  realize  at 
the  outset  that  his  success  will  depend  chiefly  upon  him- 
self. He  should,  of  course,  have  the  help  of  a  practical 
text-book  and  of  a  competent  teacher.  A  good  text-book 
will  give  him  a  clear  presentation  of  the  general  principles 
of  Rhetoric,  and  will  make  him  acquainted  with  their  appli- 
cation to  his  work ;  it  may  even  give  him  some  direction 
in  the  more  minute  details  of  Composition.  Moreover,  the 
practical  help,  guidance,  and  criticism  of  a  competent 
teacher  cannot  but  be  of  great  service  to  him.  Both  text- 
book and  teacher  are  in  fact  valuable  aids  in  his  work ; 
but  neither  the  instructor  nor  the  book,  however  excellent 
in  themselves,  can  insure  the  student's  success.  This  will 
depend  largely  upon  his  disposition  of  mind  and  upon  the 
way  in  which  he  regards  his  work.  The  degree  of  pro- 
ficiency which  he  acquires  will  be  measured  mainly  by  his 
own  desire  for  improvement,  and  by  the  amount  of  labor 
which  he  is  willing  to  give  to  the  study.  Impatience,  care- 
lessness, haste,  and  laziness  are  his  worst  foes.  An  enthu- 
siastic interest  in  his  work,  a  disposition  to  take  pains  with 
his  themes,  and  a  willingness  to  profit  by  criticism  will  count 
for  more  than  all  else.  These  things  lie  at  the  very  foun- 
dation of  his  success.  Nothing  can  take  the  place  of  down- 
right earnestness  and  seriousness  of  purpose. 

29 


30  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

The  student  who  writes  his  themes  in  a  purely  perfunc- 
tory spirit,  merely  as  so  much  task-work,  can  hardly  hope 
to  receive  much  benefit.  There  is  no  "  short  cut "  to  suc- 
cessful composition.  All  who  attain  excellence  —  even 
those  who  possess  great  natural  aptitude  for  expression  — 
must  travel  the  same  road.  Even  if  our  progress  is  slow, 
we  must  be  content  and  persevere ;  for  we  know  that  per- 
sistent practice  must  produce  substantial  and  permanent 
results. 

Another  fact  of  fundamental  importance  should  be 
noted.  It  is  desirable  to  keep  the  many  detailed  matters 
of  Good  Use  distinct  from  the  broader  applications  of  gen- 
eral principles.  Professor  Wendell  was  the  first  to  point 
out  that  in  the  study  of  Composition  two  different  kinds  of 
questions  arise,  and  that  much  misdirected  effort  and  mis- 
understanding have  resulted  from  the  habit  of  confusing 
them.  The  first  of  these  classes  of  questions  concerns 
itself  chiefly  with  matters  of  detail ;  the  second  deals  with 
more  general  considerations  requiring  the  exercise  of  the 
judgment  and  the  application  of  rhetorical  principles. 

Matters  of  detail  are  so  numerous  that  no  treatise  on 
Rhetoric  could,  even  if  it  were  desirable,  take  account  of 
them  all.  The  larger  number,  however,  of  the  particular 
difficulties  that  confront  the  young  writer  will  entirely  dis- 
appear after  he  has  mastered  the  principles  of  his  art ;  for 
most  questions  of  detail  will  then  group  themselves  under 
general  principles.  Yet  there  will  remain  not  a  few  diffi- 
cult matters  of  detail  which  will  demand  the  student's 
attention.  These  often  concern  themselves,  for  example, 
with  grammatical  constructions  and  the  correct  meaning 
of  words.  Such  questions  must  be  settled  by  a  knowledge 
of  reputable  present  use.  It  is  proper  in  such  cases  to 
speak  of  a  given  construction  or  of  a  particular  use  of  a 


FUNDAMENTAL   FACTS   AND   PRINCIPLES  31 

word  as  being  either  right  or  wrong ;  for  Good  Use  is  gen- 
erally positive  and  rigid  in  its  requirements. 

Most  questions,  however,  which  arise  in  our  study  are 
not  questions  of  correctness  or  incorrectness,  like  processes 
and  results  in  an  algebraic  problem.  We  cannot  speak 
with  mathematical  exactness  and  certainty  concerning 
them.  They  are  generally  matters  that  require  the  careful 
exercise  of  one's  judgment.  Only  a  dogmatist  would  speak 
of  such  discretionary  matters  as  being  eternally  right  or 
wrong.  It  is  proper  for  the  writer,  in  such  cases,  rather 
to  ask  himself  the  questions :  Which  is  the  better  way  ? 
Can  this  be  improved  ?  Can  the  meaning  be  made  clearer, 
or  stated  more  forcibly  ?  In  order  to  answer  these  ques- 
tions as  they  come  up  in  his  work,  the  student  must  have 
recourse  to  the  principles  of  Composition. 

The  most  important  of  these  general  laws  of  Composition 
are  the  principles  of  Unity,  Coherence,  and  Emphasis.  Of 
these,  Unity  is  sometimes  made  to  include  the  principle 
of  Selection,  and  Emphasis  is  often  made  to  embrace  the 
principle  of  Proportion.  It  seems  best,  however,  to  regard 
Selection  and  Proportion  as  distinct  principles.  Another 
canon  of  great  importance  is  the  principle  of  Variety. 
These  fundamental  principles  have  usually  a  threefold 
application,  and  a  large  part  of  our  discussion  will  neces- 
sarily be  given  to  an  endeavor  to  show  how  they  apply 
to  the  three  units  of  expression,  —  the  whole  composition, 
the  paragraph,  and  the  sentence.  Some  of  them  also  have 
a  particular  application  to  the  several  kinds  of  Composi- 
tion. A  brief  general  statement  of  these  principles  may 
be  given  as  a  preliminary  to  their  detailed  discussion. 

1.  The  principle  of  Unity  requires  us  to  stick  closely 
to  our  subject.  Nothing  should  be  admitted  into  a  theme 
unless  it  has  a  direct  bearing  upon  the  topic  under  discus- 


32  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

sion.  Digressions  are  to  be  avoided ;  all  irrelevant  matter 
must  be  rigidly  excluded.  The  paragraph  should  be  a  unit 
in  itself,  and  all  the  sentences  in  it  should  treat  of  one  par- 
ticular subdivision  of  the  general  subject.  The  sentence 
should  express  a  single  thought,  a  unified  group  of  related 
ideas. 

2.  The  principle  of  Selection  determines  what  ideas  are 
to  be  chosen.  Of  the  many  thoughts  that  naturally  arise 
on  any  subject,  we  should  select  only  those  which  are 
most  useful  for  our  immediate  purpose.  We  should  dis- 
criminate between  what  is  essential  and  what  is  unim- 
portant. We  should  seize  upon  those  things  which  are 
necessary  and  valuable,  and  exclude  whatever  is  obvious 
and  trivial. 

3.  The  principle  of  Coherence  demands  that  our  thought 
be  orderly.  Our  ideas  are  not  to  be  set  down  at  haphazard, 
but  with  due  regard  to  logical  sequence.  There  should  be 
a  definite  reason  why  one  part  of  a  subject  is  taken  up 
before  another.  The  sentences  which  make  up  a  para- 
graph should  follow  one  another  according  to  a  definite 
order  of  thought.  Even  the  phrases  and  clauses  which 
compose  a  sentence  should  be  clearly  and  coherently  put 
together.  A  natural  and  logical  arrangement  of  one's 
thoughts  is  necessary  for  the  sake  of  clearness  and 
effectiveness. 

4.  The  principle  of  Proportion  deals  with  the  relative 
importance  of  our  ideas.  We  should  exercise  our  sense 
of  proportion  in  our  theme-writing.  We  must  examine  all 
our  thoughts  on  a  given  subject  in  order  to  determine 
what  are  the  most  important.  Then  we  should  so  plan 
our  work  as  to  give  the  greater  amount  of  space  to  those 
ideas  which  are  most  significant.  We  should  dwell  at 
length  upon  those   thoughts  which  are  valuable  and  im- 


FUNDAMENTAL   FACTS    AND   PRINCIPLES  33 

portant,  and  should  not  give  insignificant  ideas  a  dispro- 
portionate amount  of  room. 

5.  The  principle  of  Emphasis  requires  that  special 
stress  be  placed  upon  the  most  important  ideas.  This 
object  is,  to  be  sure,  sometimes  accomplished  by  the 
amount  of  space  we  give  to  a  particular  thought.  There 
are,  however,  certain  devices  of  arrangement  and  expres- 
sion which  can  be  used  to  give  stress  to  what  ought  to  be 
made  especially  emphatic.  It  has  been  found,  for  instance, 
that,  whether  we  are  writing  a  theme  or  a  paragraph  or 
merely  a  sentence,  particular  prominence  can  be  given  to 
an  idea  by  placing  it  either  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end. 

6.  The  principle  of  Variety  demands  that  we  should 
vary  our  expression  as  much  as  possible.  Tiresome  repe- 
titions should  be  avoided.  Our  paragraphs,  for  example, 
should  not  all  be  built  up  on  the  same  model.  Our  sen- 
tences should  not  all  be  of  about  the  same  length,  or  cast 
in  the  same  mould.  We  should  not  repeat  the  same  word 
or  phrase  unless  it  is  really  necessary.  In  short,  a  writer 
should  avoid  mere  repetition  and  monotony,  and  should 
seek  to  give  his  style  as  much  variety  as  he  can. 

These  principles  of  Composition  are,  as  has  been  said, 
the  result  of  experience.  Men  have  been  writing  a  long 
time,  and  from  their  experiments,  their  successes  and  fail- 
ures, it  has  been  possible  to  derive  these  general  laws  for 
our  practical  guidance.  The  basis  of  their  authority  rests 
upon  long  experience.  They  are  as  truly  the  legitimate 
inductions  from  observation  and  experiment  as  the  laws  of 
physics;  and  within  their  realm  they  are  quite  as  valid  and 
valuable.  Their  authority  is  in  fact  so  well  established 
that  we  can  accept  them  and  use  them  without  further 
question.  It  is  but  reasonable  that  we  should  be  willing  to 
profit  by  the  experience  of  centuries,    These  principles  are 


34  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

nothing  more  than  reason  and  common  sense  applied  to 
the  art  of  writing. 

To  sum  up  :  It  is  a  fact  of  fundamental  importance  that 
the  student's  success  will  depend,  not  upon  the  text-book 
or  the  teacher,  but  mainly  upon  his  own  disposition  and 
efforts.  His  desire  for  self-improvement  should  urge  him 
to  take  a  keen  interest  in  his  work.  He  should  be  pains- 
taking and  patient.  Skill  and  facility  depend  upon  tire- 
less practice.  In  his  study  of  Composition  two  classes  of 
questions  will  arise :  first,  matters  of  detail ;  second,  mat- 
ters of  discretion.  Such  matters  of  detail  as  cannot  be 
brought  under  the  principles  of  Composition  are  questions 
of  right  or  wrong,  to  be  answered  by  an  appeal  to  Good 
Use.  Most  matters  that  come  up  for  decision,  however, 
require  an  exercise  of  the  judgment;  the  question  that 
they  raise  is,  which  of  two  given  modes  of  expression 
is  better  or  worse.  Such  problems  are  to  be  solved  by  the 
principles  of  Composition.  The  six  general  principles  of 
Unity,  Selection,  Coherence,  Proportion,  Emphasis,  and 
Variety  refer  particularly  to  the  whole  composition,  the 
paragraph,  and  the  sentence.  From  their  very  nature, 
they  apply  not  only  to  the  planning  and  the  actual  writing 
of  the  theme,  but  also  to  its  criticism  and  its  final  revision. 
Their  authority  is  based  upon  the  common  experience  of 
generations  of  writers. 


II 

THE   WHOLE   COMPOSITION 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE   SUBJECT 

Manifestly  the  first  step  for  the  student  of  Composi- 
tion is  to  secure  a  subject.  To  the  practical  writer  outside 
the  class-room  —  to  the  business  man,  the  professional  man, 
and  the  author  —  the  selection  of  a  subject  presents  no  dif- 
ficulties. He  already  has  something  to  write  about ;  it  is 
for  this  reason  only  that  he  wishes  to  write.  To  the  stu- 
dent of  English  Composition,  however,  who  is  writing 
simply  for  practice,  to  gain  command  of  his  pen  and  to 
secure  some  degree  of  clearness,  force,  and  ease,  the  choice 
of  a  suitable  subject  frequently  presents  real  difficulty. 

This  difficulty  is  often  a  very  embarrassing  one.  If  the 
student  is  asked  to  choose  his  own  subject,  he  is  in  danger 
of  wasting  his  time  and  of  misdirecting  his  efforts.  There 
is  such  a  variety  of  subjects  that  he  scarcely  knows  which 
one  to  take.  Thus  he  is  likely  to  spend  considerable  time 
in  his  quest.  When,  however,  after  diligent  search  and 
due  consideration,  he  has  at  last  decided  on  a  subject,  he 
might  reasonably  hope  that  his  greatest  difficulty  has  been 
overcome ;  but  it  often  happens  that  his  worst  troubles 
now  begin.  These  usually  arise  from  the  nature  of  the 
subject  that  he  has  chosen.  The  student  who  is  allowed 
to  make  his  own  selection  without  the  guidance  of  an  ex- 
perienced teacher  often  finds  that  he  has  taken  a  subject 
too  broad  for  adequate  treatment  in  a  short  theme,  or  too 
difficult  for  his  limited  knowledge  and  powers.     The  un- 

37 


38  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

practised  writer  who  makes  this  mistake  can  scarcely  be 
blamed;  for  many  text-books  on  Composition  and  many 
unskilful  teachers  have  fallen  into  the  same  error.  For 
example,  a  treatise  on  Composition  printed  less  than  a 
quarter  of  a  century  ago  suggests  the  following  as  suit- 
able subjects  for  students'  themes  :  "  War,"  "  Mountains," 
"Disease,"  "Honor,"  "Newspapers,"  "The  Fickleness  of 
Fortune,"  "The  Love  of  Fame,"  "Comets,"  "The  Pleas- 
ures of  Memory,"  "  Knowledge  is  Power,"  "  Greek  Mythol- 
ogy," and  "The  Immortality  of  the  Soul."  If  a  student 
who  is  left  to  his  own  devices  selects  such  subjects  as  these, 
he  will  soon  conclude  that  English  Composition  is  a  hard 
taskmaster.  The  teacher  who  is  guilty  of  assigning  to  his 
pupils  such  theme-subjects  as  "  Disease,"  "  Comets,"  and 
"  The  Love  of  Fame  "  cannot  reasonably  complain  if  they 
conceive  a  hearty  dislike  for  theme-writing. 

Even  the  practised  writer  might  find  it  extremely  diffi- 
cult to  write  on  any  of  the  subjects  just  named.  The  be- 
ginner, it  is  true,  is  often  attracted  by  abstract  themes  like 
"The  Fickleness  of  Fortune,"  "The  Love  of  Fame,"  or 
"  The  Pleasures  of  Memory  "  ;  but  as  soon  as  he  begins  to 
write  he  discovers  that  he  has  little  knowledge  and  few 
thoughts  bearing  upon  his  subject,  and  that  the  little  which 
he  can  say  possesses  but  slight  interest  to  the  ordinary 
reader.  Such  subjects  as  "Mountains,"  "War,"  and 
"  Disease "  are  less  abstract  and  ambitious ;  they  are 
much  more  likely  to  come  within  the  range  of  the  ordi- 
nary man's  thought  and  knowledge ;  yet  they  are  almost 
as  difficult,  because  it  is  well-nigh  impossible  to  give  them 
anything  like  adequate  treatment  in  a  short  theme.  The 
fault  with  these  subjects  is  that  they  are  too  broad  and 
general.  They  are  not  sufficiently  restricted.  On  a  broad 
subject  like  "War"  there  are  so  many  things  to  be  said 


THE    SUBJECT  39 

that  the  writer  is  almost  as  much  at  a  loss  as  he  would  be 
were  he  entirely  without  a  subject. 

The  difficulty,  however,  will  disappear  as  soon  as  the 
general  subject  has  been  narrowed  down  to  something  defi- 
nite and  familiar.  A  student's  subject  should  be  so  re- 
stricted that  he  can  give  it  satisfactory  treatment  within 
the  limits  set  for  his  short  theme;  and  it  should  be  so 
familiar  as  to  come  within  the  range  of  his  knowledge  or 
experience.  The  man,  for  instance,  who  finds  it  impos- 
sible to  write  about  war  in  general  might  produce  a  very 
creditable  composition  on  "  Gettysburg  as  a  Turning-point 
of  the  Civil  War."  The  student  who  can  say  nothing  of 
interest  about  "  Mountains "  might  write  an  entertaining 
theme  on  "A  Tramp  to  the  Mountains."  "  Disease" 
would  no  doubt  have  proved  a  difficult  or  impossible  sub- 
ject to  a  young  man  who  wrote  an  interesting  account  of 
"The  Anthrax  Plague  in  our  Village."  It  is  thus  found 
to  be  easier  to  deal  with  a  restricted  and  familiar  subject, 
because  one  has  something  definite  to  write  about  and  is 
more  likely  to  have  something  interesting  to  say. 

The  writer's  ability,  knowledge,  experience,  and  in- 
terests should  all  have  weight  in  the  choice  of  a  subject. 
Whether  the  student's  judgment  on  these  matters  is  likely 
to  be  as  sound  as  that  of  his  teacher  is  a  debatable  ques- 
tion. The  beginner  to  whom  is  given  entire  freedom  of 
choice  may  very  easily  plunge  himself  into  serious  diffi- 
culties. He  may  take  a  subject  which  is  quite  beyond  his 
knowledge  or  ability;  he  may  decide  on  a  subject  alto- 
gether too  large  for  adequate  discussion  in  the  limited 
space  allotted  to  him ;  and  in  any  case,  he  is  likely  to  spend 
a  good  deal  of  time  in  trying  to  find  something  to  write 
about.  If,  however,  his  teacher  assigns  him  a  subject 
sufficiently  restricted  in  scope  and  intimately  related  to  his 


40  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

interests,  his  knowledge,  and  his  experience,  he  can  set 
to  work  at  once.  With  such  guidance  he  is  not  likely  to 
go  far  astray ;  he  need  waste  no  time  in  coming  to  a  deci- 
sion ;  and  he  will  not  be  obliged  to  consult  books  of  refer- 
ence in  quest  of  material.  It  is  generally  best,  therefore, 
for  student  and  teacher  to  cooperate  in  the  selection  of 
subjects.  The  pupil  may  suggest  subjects  on  which  he 
can  write,  and  these  may  be  submitted  to  the  instructor 
for  his  approval.  But  whether  the  student  finds  his  own 
subject,  or  takes  one  assigned  by  his  teacher,  it  is  most 
important  that  he  should  write  on  a  definite  and  restricted 
topic,  easily  within  the  range  of  his  knowledge  and  ability. 
It  may  be  well  to  consider  briefly  the  most  accessible 
sources  of  material  for  themes.  Men  who  write  draw  their 
material  from  one  of  three  distinct  sources,  (i)  Their 
compositions  may  be  based  upon  their  reading  and  re- 
search. Books  are  read,  works  of  reference  are  con- 
sulted, investigations  are  made,  notes  are  taken  —  all  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  relevant  material.  The  composi- 
tion produced  from  material  thus  secured  may  be  a  the- 
sis, a  literary  criticism,  an  historical  study,  a  biographical 
sketch,  or  a  scientific  investigation.  (2)  Again,  a  writer 
may  draw  entirely  upon  his  own  imagination.  In  telling 
a  story  he  may  invent  his  own  characters,  scenes,  and 
incidents ;  he  need  in  no  wise  restrict  himself  to  the  por- 
trayal of  actual  characters  or  to  the  recital  of  actual  occur- 
rences. As  a  result,  he  produces  a  novel,  a  romance,  or  a 
short  story.  (3)  He  may,  without  consulting  books,  give 
expression  to  his  own  observations,  experiences,  opinions, 
convictions,  and  impressions.  In  this  way  are  written 
letters,  news  items,  editorials,  descriptions,  personal  narra- 
tives, reports  of  work  done,  and  explanations  of  processes 
familiar  to  the  writer. 


THE   SUBJECT  41 

There  are,  then,  three  sources  from  which  writers  draw 
their  subject-matter.  An  author,  of  course,  may  go  to 
more  than  one  of  these  sources  for  his  material.  The 
novelist,  for  instance,  even  though  he  draws  upon  his  own 
imagination  for  the  characters,  scenes,  and  incidents  of  his 
story,  writes  only  after  close  observation,  long  experience, 
and  wide  reading.  Again,  even  in  writing  the  most  per- 
sonal composition,  one  may  have  occasion  to  support  his 
own  observations  by  those  of  other  men.  Yet  these  three 
divisions,  although  they  occasionally  merge  into  one  an- 
other, stand  out  more  or  less  distinct. 

Of  these  three  kinds  of  writing  the  last  is  by  far  the 
most  in  demand  by  the  practical  world.  In  professional 
work,  in  business  relations,  in  political  life,  in  ordinary 
correspondence,  in  journalism  above  all,  one  must  be  ready, 
without  study  or  previous  preparation,  to  express  on  the 
instant,  with  ease,  accuracy,  and  clearness,  the  thing  that 
he  thinks  or  feels  or  knows.  This  fact  is  sufficient  reason 
why  the  student  should,  in  his  theme-writing,  draw  chiefly 
upon  his  own  fund  of  knowledge,  experience,  and  personal 
impressions.  The  thought  as  well  as  the  mode  of  expres- 
sion will  then  be  all  his  own.  It  is,  moreover,  easier  for 
him  to  write  about  what  he  has  himself  thought  or  seen  or 
experienced  than  to  express  another's  thought  at  second 
hand ;  and  on  a  familiar  subject  he  is  far  more  likely  to 
write  in  an  interesting  and  natural  manner.  The  student, 
therefore,  will  usually  get  his  most  valuable  practice  by 
writing  on  familiar  subjects. 

A  word  should  be  said  about  the  title  of  the  theme. 
This  should  be  a  brief  but  exact  designation  of  the  subject. 
Subject  and  title  are  occasionally,  but  not  always,  the 
same.  The  title  is  simply  the  name  that  the  writer  gives 
to  his  composition.     Frequently  it  is  an  abbreviated  form 


42  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

of  the  subject.  For  example,  the  student  who  entitled 
his  theme,  "A  Tramp  to  the  Mountains,"  really  had  for 
his  subject  "  What  I  Saw  and  Did  while  Taking  a  Tramp  to 
the  Mountains."  It  is  also  well  for  a  writer  to  seek  an 
attractive  title.  Thus  a  student  who  told  how  a  destruc- 
tive fire  almost  effaced  his  native  village  entitled  his 
theme,  "The  Night  I  did  not  Sleep."  The  title,  then, 
gives  to  the  theme  a  brief,  appropriate,  and  attractive 
name,  while  the  subject,  as  conceived  by  the  writer,  usually 
contains,  when  fully  expressed,  a  more  extended  and  defi- 
nite description  of  the  composition. 

The  title  and  the  theme  should,  of  course,  be  kept  en- 
tirely distinct.  The  title  is  not  the  real  beginning.  The 
composition  starts  with  the  first  sentence,  and  in  this  open- 
ing sentence  the  title  should  in  no  way  be  implied  or  taken 
for  granted  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  beginning  of  the  theme 
should  not  contain  any  word  which  implies  that  the  reader 
has  a  knowledge  of  the  title.  A  writer  may,  for  instance, 
be  tempted  to  let  some  word  in  the  title  serve  as  the  ante- 
cedent of  a  personal  pronoun  or  pronominal  adjective  used 
in  the  opening  sentence.  This  fault  is  illustrated  in  the  first 
sentence  of  a  composition  entitled  "  The  Industries  of  my 
Native  Town  "  :  "  They  are  cigar-manufacturing  and  paper- 
making."  Another  theme  bearing  the  same  title  began 
thus :  "  My  native  town  contains  so  many  different  indus- 
tries that  in  writing  on  this  subject  I  can  discuss  only  the 
most  important."  The  reader  of  these  themes,  of  course, 
does  not  know,  without  referring  back  to  the  title,  what 
the  words  they  and  this  subject  mean  ;  and  therefore  each 
of  these  opening  sentences,  when  read  by  itself,  is  lacking 
in  clearness. 

The  student  may  conclude,  then,  that  after  he  has 
obtained   a   restricted    and   familiar    theme-subject,   com- 


THE   SUBJECT  43 

ing  within  the  range  of  his  knowledge,  experience,  and 
interests,  and  has  devised  for  his  theme  an  appropriate 
and  attractive  title,  he  is  ready  for  the  actual  work  of 
composition. 

EXERCISES 

I.  Narrow  each  of  the  following  general  subjects,  which  have  been 
taken  from  an  old  text-book  on  Composition.  From  each  general 
subject  try  to  obtain  four  or  five  theme-subjects  sufficiently  restricted 
in  scope  for  treatment  in  short  themes  containing  about  four  hundred 
words  each :  — 

I.  Flowers.  2.  Forests.  3.  Mountains.  4.  Summer.  5.  Disease. 
6.  War.  7.  Night.  8.  Winter.  9.  City  Life.  10.  Newspapers. 
11.  The  United  States.  12.  The  Bible.  13.  The  Earth.  14.  Rain. 
15.  Rivers.  16.  The  Ocean.  17.  Government.  18.  Manufactures. 
19.  Commerce.  20.  College  Life.  21.  Gardening.  22.  American 
Literature.  23.  Music.  24.  Snow.  25.  Country  Life.  26.  The  Ap- 
plications of  Steam.  27.  Natural  History.  28.  Fashion.  29.  Elec- 
tion Day.     30.  The  Great  West. 

II.  Criticise  each  of  the  following  as  subjects  suitable  for  themes 
containing  four  hundred  words  each.  What  are  the  merits  or  the 
faults  of  each?  How  much  space  is  required  for  the  adequate  treat- 
ment of  each  ?  From  the  reader's  standpoint,  what  are  the  most  inter- 
esting subjects  in  the  list?  What  are  the  least  interesting?  Are  any 
of  them  too  broad  and  general  for  discussion  in  short  themes?  If 
there  are  any  such  in  the  list,  suggest  how  each  may  be  improved  as 
a  theme-subject.  By  what  kind  of  composition  —  narration,  descrip- 
tion, exposition,  or  argumentation  —  should  each  subject  be  treated? 

1.  The  Indians  at  the  Time  of  the       6.    How  I  Earned  Money  to  Pay 

Colonization  of  America.  my  College  Expenses. 

2.  Scenes  in  Maine.  7.    Across    the  Continent   on  a 

3.  How  the  Illinois  Central  Rail-  Freight  Train. 

road  is  Inspected.  8.    How  Potatoes  are  Grown. 

4.  Chinese  Civilization.  9.   A  Colonial  Ball. 

5.  The  Autobiography  of  a      10.    A  Fishing  Trip  to  the  Grand 

Dime.  Banks. 


44 


COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 


1 1 .  Yellowstone  Park. 

12.  Fear. 

13.  An  Exciting  Ride  on  a  Hand- 

car. 

14.  The  Caves  and  Sink-holes  of 

"  Sinking  Valley." 

15.  Shooting  an  Oil-well. 

16.  Forest  Fires. 

1 7 .  How  I  Caught  a  Pair  of  Young 

Foxes. 

18.  Belief  in  the  Supernatural. 

19.  The  Daily  Life  of  a  Roman 

Youth. 

20.  A  Visit  to  the  Ephrata  Clois- 

ters. 

21.  Winter  Sports. 

22.  A  Trapping  Trip  on  Raccoon 

Creek. 

23.  How  to  Break  a  Colt. 

24.  The  Effect  of  Inventions  upon 

the  Laboring  Class. 

25.  How  a  Country  Newspaper  is 

Made. 


26.  The   Life  of  Abraham  Lin- 

coln. 

27.  My  First  Day  as  a  Country 

School-teacher. 

28.  Out  on  the  Ocean  in  a  Row- 

boat. 

29.  The  Negro  Question. 

30.  How  I  Found  a  Bee  Tree. 

31.  My  Visit  to  Penn's  Cave. 

32.  How     Bituminous     Coal     is 

Mined  by  Machinery. 

33.  Stock-raising. 

34.  How  I  Read  a  Newspaper. 

35.  Niagara  Falls. 

36.  Modes  of  Transportation. 

37.  My    Experience    in     Under- 

ground Surveying. 

38.  Down  the  Susquehanna  River 

on  a  Raft. 

39.  College  Athletics. 

40.  How  I  Caught  a  Burglar. 

41.  A    Comparison    of    Modern 

with  Ancient  Warfare. 


III.     Suggest  suitable  titles  for  themes  on  the  following  subjects  :  — 

1 .  The  state  of  Virginia  should  have  better  roads. 

2.  Women  should  be  allowed  to  vote. 

3.  Pittsburg  is  a  great  industrial  centre. 

4.  The  length  of  a  college  course  should  be  reduced  to  three  years. 

5.  Students   should   be  required  to  take   some    regular    physical 
exercise. 

6.  A  college  education  is  a  helpful  preparation  for  business  life. 

7.  Practice  in  the  art  of  debate  is  an  excellent  means  of  training 
the  intellect. 

8.  The  United  States  government  should  own  and  operate  all  the 
railroads  in  the  country. 

9.  A  college  education  is  the  best  investment  a  young  man  can  make. 
10.    The  science  of  chemistry  has  materially  aided  in  the  industrial 

progress  of  the  United  States. 


THE   SUBJECT  45 

IV.  1.  Make  a  list  of  five  good  theme-subjects  suggested  by  famil- 
iar scenes,  interesting  experiences,  or  important  events  in  your  life. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  five  theme-subjects  dealing  with  the  exposition  of 
some  processes  or  mechanical  appliances  with  which  you  are  familiar. 
(See  List  V,  in  Appendix  E.) 

3.  Make  a  list  of  five  familiar  subjects  suitable  for  narrative  themes. 

4.  Make  a  similar  list  of  five  good  subjects  for  descriptive  themes. 

V.  Let  the  instructor  select  for  each  student  four  or  five  theme-sub- 
jects from  the  list  of  twenty  subjects  thus  submitted.  Let  the  student 
make  a  memorandum  of  the  subjects  which  have  been  approved. 

VI.  On  one  of  the  subjects  write  a  theme  containing  about  four 
hundred  words. 


CHAPTER  VII 
UNITY   AND   SELECTION 

The  principle  of  Unity  as  applied  to  the  whole  composi- 
tion requires  that  the  writer  shall  have  a  definite  purpose 
and  shall  stick  to  it.  If  the  finished  theme  is  to  stand  out 
as  a  consistent  whole,  the  writer  must  be  sure  that  every 
thought  in  it  is  a  relevant  and  unmistakable  part  of  that 
whole.  To  attain  this  end,  he  must  form  a  clear  con- 
ception of  his  subject,  and  must  have  in  mind  a  definite 
purpose  while  he  writes ;  he  must  make  a  painstaking  selec- 
tion of  such  thoughts  as  contribute  to  the  development  of 
his  subject  and  the  accomplishment  of  his  purpose ;  and 
he  must  so  phrase  these  thoughts  that  the  reader  can 
readily  see  why  they  form  parts  of  the  composition.  The 
whole  composition,  then,  should  possess  unity  of  purpose : 
one  central  idea  and  purpose  should  be  evident  through- 
out. In  the  next  place,  the  composition  should  be  about 
one  thing :  there  should  be  unity  of  thought.  Nothing 
should  be  admitted  which  does  not  contribute  to  the  one 
central  thought.  In  every  composition  there  should  also 
be  unity  of  treatment:  every  thought  should  be  so  ex- 
pressed that  its  relation  to  the  subject  is  evident  to  the 
reader.  Finally,  there  should  be  unity  of  feeling:  that  is, 
there  should  be  no  departure  from  the  general  tone  or 
feeling  of  a  composition.  These  four  aspects  of  Unity  it 
is  necessary  to  consider  in  detail. 

i.    Before  a  writer  can  select  his  material,  he  must  form 

46 


UNITY   AND   SELECTION  47 

a  clear  conception  of  his  subject.  He  must  know  exactly 
what  he  is  going  to  write  about.  Such  a  conception  is 
necessary  because  it  forms  the  central  idea  of  the  whole 
composition.  This  central  idea  the  writer  must  always 
keep  consciously  before  him.  It  serves  as  a  nucleus  round 
which  are  to  be  grouped  the  various  thoughts  necessary 
to  the  development  of  the  subject.  Every  paragraph  and 
every  sentence  in  a  theme  should  be  related  to  this  cen- 
tral thought.  A  writer,  therefore,  should  have  a  clear  con- 
ception of  his  subject,  or  the  central  idea  of  his  composition. 
This  is  the  first  step  in  the  attainment  of  unity. 

In  the  next  place,  a  writer  should  not  work  without  a 
definite  aim  or  purpose.  He  must  have  an  object  as  well 
as  a  subject,  and  must  make  both  as  definite  as  possible. 
In  fact,  the  writer's  purpose  is  an  essential  part  of  his  sub- 
ject;  for  the  object  he  has  in  view  modifies  the  subject  and 
often  determines  the  method  of  treatment.  For  instance, 
if  a  man  were  to  write  about  a  political  convention  that  he 
had  attended,  he  might,  according  to  his  purpose,  either 
describe  the  assemblage  of  people,  or  relate  a  series  of 
events  that  happened  at  the  meeting.  In  a  newspaper 
account  of  the  same  convention  a  reporter  might  combine 
description  with  narration.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that 
the  writer's  purpose  must  be  considered  in  the  selection  of 
material.  Moreover,  there  can  be  no  unity  of  purpose  in 
a  composition  unless  the  writer  constantly  aims  at  one 
and  the  same  object.  If  he  should  suddenly  change  his 
plan,  or  if  he  should  write  without  any  well-defined  pur- 
pose, he  is  in  danger  of  violating  the  principle  of  Unity. 
For  the  sake  of  consistency,  then,  there  should  run  through 
every  composition  a  fixed  and  definite  purpose. 

In  forming  this  purpose  a  writer  must  also  consider  the 
class  of  readers  for  whom  he  writes.     He  must  take  into 


48  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

account  their  intelligence  and  their  previous  knowledge  of 
the  subject.  For  instance,  a  man  who  attempts  to  explain 
to  a  sailor  the  cause  of  tides  is  not  likely  to  select  the  same 
material  that  a  college  professor  would  use  in  explaining 
the  same  subject  to  his  classes.  Again,  an  author,  in  writ- 
ing for  The  Popular  Science  Monthly  an  account  of  the 
eruption  of  Mont  Pelde,  would  scarcely  employ  the  same 
ideas  or  method  of  treatment  that  he  would  use  in  prepar- 
ing an  article  on  the  same  subject  for  The  Youth's  Com- 
panion. Thus  we  see  that  many  compositions  are  intended 
for  special  classes  of  readers. 

The  majority  of  books  and  periodicals,  however,  are 
written  for  readers  of  average  intelligence.  Every  man 
who  writes  for  the  general  public  must  take  into  considera- 
tion the  ability  and  the  knowledge  of  the  average  reader. 
A  writer  should  not  make  the  mistake  of  supposing  that 
the  average  man  is  brilliant,  or  highly  educated,  or  intel- 
lectually acute.  Nor,  on  the  other  hand,  should  one  assume 
that  his  reader  is  ignorant  or  stupid.  It  is  more  correct  to 
think  of  the  average  reader  as  a  man  who  possesses  an 
ordinary  degree  of  intelligence  and  a  fair  stock  of  general 
information.  More  than  this  a  student  should  not  take 
for  granted  in  his  theme-writing.  He  should  write  with  a 
view  to  the  knowledge  and  mental  capacity  of  the  average 
reader. 

To  secure  unity  of  purpose,  a  writer  should  also  have  a 
fixed  point  of  view.  Just  what  "point  of  view  "  means  as 
applied  to  the  writer's  task  may  best  be  explained  by  sev- 
eral illustrations.  A  man,  for  instance,  who  wishes  to 
paint  a  picture  must  first  select  some  point  from  which  he 
can  look  at  the  object  to  be  portrayed.  This  point  of 
observation  he  will  choose  with  care,  for  the  character 
of  his  picture  will  depend  largely  upon  the  point  of  view 


UNITY   AND   SELECTION  49 

chosen.  From  this  one  point  he  will  depict  the  whole 
scene  spread  out  before  him.  In  photography,  also,  one 
can  still  more  readily  see  the  importance  of  having  a  fixed 
point  of  view.  If,  in  photographing  an  object,  one  should 
take  upon  the  same  plate  several  views  from  different 
points,  the  result  would  be  little  better  than  a  blur:  the 
picture  would  lack  unity  of  impression.  Let  us  suppose, 
now,  that  instead  of  making  a  picture,  one  should  attempt 
to  describe  what  he  has  seen.  If  he  would  write  a  vivid 
and  consistent  description,  he  must  likewise  choose  a  defi- 
nite point  of  view  and  stick  to  it.  If  he  is  constantly 
changing  his  angle  of  observation,  he  is  sure  to  give  his 
reader  a  distorted  impression.  Such  a  description  would 
lack  unity  because  it  presents  to  the  reader  several  differ- 
ent views  of  the  same  object.  A  concrete  case  may  make 
the  matter  a  little  clearer.  If,  for  instance,  one  sets  out  to 
describe  a  college  campus  as  seen  from  the  top  of  some 
high  building,  he  may  utterly  destroy  the  unity  of  his  work 
by  obtruding  into  his  description  such  observations  as  can 
be  made  only  by  a  person  who  strolls  across  the  college 
grounds.  His  work  will  lack  unity  of  purpose  because  he 
has  no  fixed  point  of  view. 

These  considerations  enable  us  to  see  the  importance  of 
keeping  the  point  of  view  unchanged  in  descriptive  writ- 
ing ;  for  in  this  kind  of  composition  a  writer  must  look  at 
things  from  an  actual  physical  standpoint.  It  is  possible, 
however,  to  have  a  mental  as  well  as  a  physical  point  of 
view.  It  is  this  mental  point  of  view  that  we  refer  to  when 
we  commonly  say  that  there  are  different  ways  of  looking 
at  the  same  thing.  By  "  point  of  view,"  then,  we  ordi- 
narily mean  the  writer's  attitude  of  mind  —  his  way  of 
looking  at  his  subject.  In  this  figurative  sense  the  term 
is  applied  to  all  kinds  of   composition.     For  instance,  a 


50  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

man  who  relates  his  own  experiences  writes  from  a  per- 
sonal point  of  view.  The  events  in  a  game  of  football 
may  be  recounted  from  the  standpoint  of  a  participant, 
or  from  that  of  a  spectator.  A  novelist  may  tell  his  story 
in  the  first  person  or  in  the  third.  If  a  man  has  set  himself 
the  task  of  writing  about  Washington  as  a  great  general,  he 
should  have  nothing  to  say  about  Washington's  family  or 
his  private  life  at  Mount  Vernon.  Having  once  chosen 
his  point  of  view,  he  should  not  depart  from  it.  These 
illustrations  also  show  that  one's  point  of  view  often 
forms  an  essential  part  of  his  subject  or  of  his  purpose  in 
writing.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  a  writer  should  keep  to 
one  fixed  point  of  view. 

In  fact,  to  change  the  point  of  view  is  one  of  the  ways 
in  which  an  unpractised  writer  is  most  likely  to  violate  the 
principle  of  Unity.  In  descriptive  writing,  where  there  is 
an  actual  physical  standpoint,  one  can  readily  see  how 
blurred  and  indistinct  is  the  impression  produced  by  a 
change  in  the  point  of  view,  and  he  is  therefore  less  likely 
to  err ;  but  in  those  kinds  of  composition  in  which  the 
point  of  view  is  a  mental  attitude,  representing  the  way  in 
which  the  writer  regards  his  subject,  it  is  usually  much 
easier  to  change  the  point  of  view,  and  thus  to  violate 
Unity.  A  single  example  will  be  enough  to  show  how 
easy  it  is  to  make  such  a  mistake,  and  how  completely  a 
change  in  the  point  of  view  destroys  the  unity  of  the 
composition  :  — 

Then,  again,  the  book-agent  comes  into  close  relation  with  actual  life 
in  the  world.  He  observes  men  at  their  work.  He  sees  the  women 
and  the  children  in  their  homes.  He  notices  how  the  houses  are  fur- 
nished and  adorned.  He  learns  something  of  the  inner  life  and  ambi- 
tions of  the  people  among  whom  he  works.  He  is  able  to  see,  more 
clearly  than  most  observers,  what  things  the  common  people  value  most 


UNITY   AND   SELECTION  5 1 

highly,  what  things  they  strive  hardest  to  get.  Many  persons,  for  in- 
stance, will  ask  him  this  question,  "  Will  your  book  help  me  to  make 
more  money  ?  "  The  price  of  the  book  and  the  amount  of  good  that  it 
will  do  the  reader  from  the  financial  point  of  view  determine  to  a  large 
extent  the  number  of  the  agent's  sales.  Most  people  look  at  a  book 
not  from  the  standpoint  of  culture,  but  from  the  practical  side.  Many 
will  say,  "I  must  learn  things  through  experience;  books  will  never 
teach  me  what  I  want  to  know."  Thus  one  sees  very  clearly  that  com- 
mercialism is  the  leading  tendency  of  to-day,  that  the  majority  of  people 
are  interested  in  business  alone,  endeavoring  to  do  as  much  work  and 
to  receive  as  much  money  as  possible.  If  these  things  are  so,  is  it  not 
the  tendency  of  the  age  for  men  to  get  into  a  narrow  groove  of  life  and 
to  miss  the  best  part  of  this  world's  good  ?  It  seems  impossible  for 
such  persons  to  enjoy  true  pleasure.  It  is  all  very  well  to  be  up  and 
doing  something,  but  if  that  doing  is  spurred  on  by  a  narrow  greed  for 
material  gain  to  such  a  degree  of  strenuousness  that  it  results  in  a 
weakening  of  one's  finer  nature  and  in  a  lessening  of  his  love  for  his 
fellow-men,  then  it  is  wrong,  for  it  is  not  conducive  to  the  development 
of  the  highest  type  of  character.  If  men  could  only  see  that  "a  man's 
life  consisteth  not  in  the  abundance  of  the  things  which  he  possesseth," 
they  would  enjoy  life  more,  and  would  better  fulfil  their  obligations  to 
their  fellow-men  and  their  God. 

In  this  passage  the  writer  completely  changes  his  point  of 
view.  In  that  part  of  the  theme  which  is  not  quoted  and 
in  the  beginning  of  this  paragraph,  he  relates  his  personal 
experiences  and  observations ;  but  about  the  middle  of  the 
paragraph  he  ceases  to  give  his  observations  and  begins 
to  moralize  upon  them.  In  short,  the  observer  has  turned 
moralist.  The  writer's  moral  reflections  are  given  for 
their  own  sake ;  they  throw  no  light  upon  his  experience 
as  a  book-agent.  Here  the  change  in  the  point  of  view 
results  in  what  is  practically  a  digression  from  the  subject. 
Every  writer,  then,  in  order  to  make  a  judicious  choice 
of  materials,  must  aim  to  give  his  work  unity  of  purpose. 
The  first  step  to  this  end  is  a  clear  and  well-defined  con- 
ception of  one's  subject.     In  the  next  place,  one  should 


52  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

have  a  definite  purpose  in  writing.  Furthermore,  it  is  usu- 
ally helpful  to  take  into  account  the  reader's  knowledge 
and  mental  capacity.  Above  all,  a  writer  should  have  a 
fixed  point  of  view.  By  compliance  with  these  require- 
ments one  can  give  consistency  and  unity  of  purpose  to 
his  work,  and  can  more  readily  select  such  ideas  as  will 
contribute  to  the  development  of  his  subject. 

2.  Every  composition  should  also  possess  unity  of 
thought.  By  this  is  meant  that  all  the  ideas  which  the 
composition  contains  shall  have  a  direct  and  unmistakable 
bearing  upon  the  one  central  thought  which  forms  the  sub- 
ject. Now,  unity  of  thought  obviously  depends  upon  the 
writer's  selection  of  ideas.  The  choice  of  suitable  mate- 
rial for  a  given  composition  is  one  of  the  most  difficult 
parts  of  the  writer's  task.  In  selecting  his  ideas,  the  inex- 
perienced writer,  unless  he  is  on  his  guard,  is  liable  to  fall 
into  several  serious  errors.  He  is  often  disposed  to  think 
that  every  idea  suggested  by  his  theme,  every  thought  that 
occurs  to  him  in  connection  with  his  subject,  should  go 
into  his  composition.  Thus  he  is  in  danger  of  admitting 
into  his  theme  ideas  that  are  either  irrelevant  or  unimpor- 
tant. Again,  he  may  leave  out  some  idea  of  vital  signifi- 
cance. That  he  may  be  on  his  guard  against  making  these 
mistakes,  he  should  bear  in  mind  what  has  been  said  about 
unity  of  purpose.  If  he  has  a  well-defined  purpose  and 
a  clear  conception  of  his  subject,  if  he  has  correctly  esti- 
mated the  reader's  ability,  and  has  chosen  a  fixed  point  of 
view,  he  should  find  it  easy  to  restrict  his  selection  of  ideas 
to  what  is  relevant  and  essential. 

The  principle  of  Unity,  in  the  first  place,  forbids  the 
intrusion  of  irrelevant  ideas.  A  composition  cannot  have 
unity  of  thought  if  it  contains  any  ideas  that  are  in  no 
way  related  to  the  subject.    A  writer  should  admit  into  his 


UNITY   AND   SELECTION  53 

composition  only  those  thoughts  which  have  a  distinct  re- 
lation to  the  topic  under  discussion.  Whenever  he  intro- 
duces into  a  composition  anything  that  is  foreign  to  its 
general  idea  and  purpose,  he  destroys  its  unity.  The 
composition  is  no  longer  about  one  thing. 

In  the  next  place,  according  to  the  principle  of  Selec- 
tion only  those  ideas  should  be  chosen  which  are  important 
and  essential.  A  writer  should  exclude  from  his  composi- 
tion all  that  is  unimportant,  trivial,  or  obvious,  and  should 
put  into  it  only  those  thoughts  that  really  contribute  to  the 
development  of  his  subject.  If  this  principle  is  followed, 
many  particulars  that  are  worse  than  worthless  will  be  left 
out.  Unnecessary  facts  and  details  only  stand  in  the  way 
of  more  important  ideas.  Their  presence  tends  to  obscure 
what  is  essential  and  vital.  The  beginner  should  guard 
against  the  danger  of  saying  too  much.  He  should  not 
think  it  necessary  to  write  down  all  that  can  be  said  on  a 
given  subject;  to  do  so,  he  will  find,  is  about  the  surest 
way  of  boring  his  reader.  Few  subjects  need  to  be  treated 
exhaustively.  The  writer  who  has  learned  to  make  a  judi- 
cious selection  of  ideas  will  often  imply  or  suggest  what 
another  would  give  in  full.  A  suggestive  style  will  always 
leave  much  to  the  intelligence  and  the  imagination  of  the 
reader.  There  can  be  but  one  reason  for  putting  a  given 
idea  into  a  composition ;  and  that  reason  is  to  be  found  in 
the  fact  that  the  idea  contributes  something  which  is  im- 
portant and  essential  to  the  development  of  the  subject. 

Finally,  a  writer  should  not  omit  from  his  composition 
any  idea  that  is  indispensable  to  the  adequate  discussion  of 
his  subject.  If,  for  instance,  one  should  write  an  exposi- 
tion which  aims  to  set  forth  the  qualities  that  form  the 
basis  of  sound  scholarship,  and  should  say  nothing  about 
the  need  of  accuracy  in  the  scholar's  work,  his  discussion 


54  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

would  not  be  complete,  and  his  composition  would  be  lack- 
ing in  unity.  In  fact,  the  omission  of  some  thought  that  is 
indispensable  to  the  adequate  treatment  of  a  subject  is  often 
quite  as  serious  a  fault  as  the  intrusion  of  extraneous  or 
unimportant  ideas.  When  some  essential  idea  has  been 
omitted,  the  theme  lacks  unity  because  it  is  incomplete. 
Such  an  omission  usually  means  that  the  writer  has  not 
properly  mastered  his  subject. 

What  is  the  most  practicable  method  by  which  a  writer 
can  make  his  selection  of  ideas  ?  Does  he  have  any  sure 
way  of  knowing  what  is  valuable,  essential,  indispensable  ? 
In  answer  to  these  questions  it  may  be  said  that  one  can 
usually  help  himself  in  the  choice  of  ideas  by  looking  at 
his  subject  from  the  standpoint  of  the  reader.  Let  him 
put  himself  in  the  reader's  place  and  ask  himself  intelli- 
gent questions  about  his  subject.  Suppose,  for  instance, 
that  a  student  has  taken  as  his  theme-subject,  "The  Most 
Interesting  Places  near  my  Home."  Let  him  ask  himself, 
In  my  neighborhood,  what  are  the  three  or  four  places  or 
sights  most  likely  to  interest  a  stranger  ?  At  the  very  be- 
ginning he  will  find  that  he  is  in  danger  of  choosing  too 
many  points  of  interest :  he  wants  to  tell  about  all  the  in- 
teresting places  in  his  vicinity.  This,  of  course,  cannot  be 
done  in  a  short  theme,  and  he  will  accordingly  find  it  bet- 
ter to  choose  the  three  or  four  places  of  greatest  interest. 
Next,  taking  up  each  place  separately,  he  will  ask  him- 
self, What  is  it  that  makes  this  place  interesting  ?  What 
would  interest  a  stranger  most  in  seeing  it  for  the  first 
time  ?  What  distinguishing  characteristics  or  peculiarities 
does  it  have  ?  Is  there  connected  with  it  any  bit  of  local 
history  or  tradition  likely  to  interest  the  stranger  ?  In 
short,  what  facts  and  details  are  necessary  to  make  the 
reader  see  this  place  and  think  of  it  as  I  see  it  and  think 


UNITY   AND    SELECTION  55 

of  it  ?  If  the  student  makes  a  practical  answer  to  such 
questions  as  these,  he  is  likely  to.  hit  upon  those  ideas 
which  are  essential  to  his  subject  and  indispensable  to  his 
purpose.  Again,  if  he  is  writing  a  story,  he  may  likewise 
question  himself  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  reader. 
He  will  ask,  What  is  the  main  incident?  What  details 
of  character  and  action  are  necessary  in  order  to  give  a 
unified  and  vivid  impression  of  this  main  incident?  In 
like  manner,  if  one  is  writing  on  an  expository  subject, 
he  will  again  naturally  try  to  put  himself  in  the  reader's 
place.  He  will  ask,  What  does  the  average  reader  already 
know  about  this  subject  ?  With  this  bit  of  common  knowl- 
edge as  a  starting-point,  what  things  will  have  to  be  ex- 
plained ?  What  are  the  essential  facts  in  this  explanation  ? 
What  are  the  difficult  points  ?  By  what  aids  can  these 
difficult  points  be  made  clear  ?  Again,  if  one  is  arguing 
a  question,  he  may  ask  himself,  By  what  facts,  or  argu- 
ment, or  reasoning,  can  this  proposition  be  established  ? 
Thus,  whatever  the  nature  of  the  subject,  the  writer  will 
generally  find  it  helpful  to  put  himself  in  the  reader's 
place  and,  from  this  standpoint,  to  ask  himself  questions 
about  his  subject. 

Another  method  of  selection  which  many  a  writer  has 
found  helpful  is  to  jot  down  all  the  ideas  that  occur  to  him 
in  connection  with  a  given  subject,  and  to  choose  from 
this  list  those  ideas  which  suit  his  purpose.  For  example, 
a  student  who  was  planning  to  write  a  composition  on 
"The  Town  I  Live  in,"  set  down  the  following  list  of  ideas 
as  possible  material  for  his  theme :  — 

1.  The  name  and  location  of  the  town. 

2.  Its  size. 

3.  Its  general  appearance. 

4.  The  history  of  the  town. 


56  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

5.  An  interesting  Indian  tradition. 

6.  How  the  town  was  named. 

7.  The  surrounding  country. 

8.  The  leading  industries. 

9.  The  village  magnate. 

10.  How  the  town  is  drained. 

11.  How  it  is  supplied  with  water. 

12.  Its  means  of  communication  with  other  towns  and  cities. 

13.  The  new  railroad  station. 

14.  The  general  character  of  the  people. 

15.  The  great  fire  that  occurred  in  1890. 

16.  The  recent  work  of  the  Village  Improvement  Society. 

From  this  list  the  student,  by  a  process  of  exclusion, 
chose  the  material  that  he  intended  to  use.  It  was  his 
purpose  to  tell,  within  the  limits  of  four  hundred  words, 
the  most  important  facts  about  the  town  in  which  he  lived. 
He  had  to  make  his  selection  in  accordance  with  this  pur- 
pose. He  found,  on  examination,  that  the  ideas  in  this 
list  naturally  divided  themselves  into  three  classes,  —  those 
which  had  an  undoubted  place  in  the  theme,  those  which 
were  clearly  out  of  place  in  so  short  an  essay,  and  those 
which  seemed  to  be  "  just  on  the  line."  After  a  careful 
examination  he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  some  use 
should  be  made  of  numbers  1,  2,  3,  8,  12,  and  14;  that  he 
would  have  no  occasion  to  use  numbers  4,  5,  6,  9,  and  13 ; 
and  that  the  remainder,  numbers  7,  10,  11,  15,  and  16, 
were  on  the  line.  The  seventh  he  finally  discarded  as 
having  no  vital  relation  to  his  subject  and  purpose.  He 
decided  to  use  the  tenth  and  the  eleventh  because  the 
nature  of  the  drainage  and  of  the  water-supply  affected 
the  healthfulness  of  the  town.  The  fifteenth  was  included 
because,  as  a  result  of  a  large  fire,  almost  half  of  the  town 
had  recently  been  rebuilt.  The  sixteenth  was  also  retained 
because  of  its  close  relation  to  the  third. 


UNITY   AND   SELECTION  57 

Ordinarily  a  writer  will  have  no  difficulty  in  deciding 
what  ideas  clearly  form*  a  part  of  his  subject,  nor  will  he 
have  much  trouble  in  recognizing  those  ideas  which  are 
plainly  outside  his  theme.  The  class  of  ideas  from  which 
he  will  have  most  difficulty  in  making  a  judicious  selection 
consists  of  those  that  lie,  as  it  were,  just  on  the  boundary 
line  of  his  subject.  Not  one  of  the  ideas  in  this  class  should 
be  used  without  sufficient  reason.  The  writer  must  care- 
fully consider  each  of  them  with  a  view  to  its  exact  bearing 
on  his  subject  and  his  purpose.  Not  until  he  has  given  it 
the  closest  scrutiny  will  he  be  able  to  decide  whether  it  shall 
be  used  or  rejected.  He  must  ask  himself  whether  the 
idea  under  consideration  forms  an  essential  part  of  his  sub- 
ject, or  makes  a  valuable  contribution  to  his  purpose.  If 
it  is  relevant  and  valuable,  it  should  be  included ;  if  it  is 
irrelevant  and  unimportant,  it  should  be  left  out. 

Against  two  common  ways  of  violating  the  unity  of 
thought  in  a  composition  the  student  should  be  especially 
on  his  guard.  These  are  irrelevant  introductions  and 
digressions. 

Many  a  student  seems  to  think  that  he  ought  not  to 
begin  to  write  about  his  subject  at  once,  but  that  he  should 
lead  up  to  it  gradually ;  and  accordingly  he  writes  what 
he  calls  an  "  introduction."  The  schoolboy  introductions 
which  are  prompted  by  this  impulse  are  one  of  the  com- 
monest faults  of  young  writers.  Most  of  them  are  accu- 
rately described  as  irrelevant;  they  do  not,  in  fact,  form 
any  part  of  the  subject.  Thus,  at  the  very  beginning,  the 
student  often  makes  the  mistake  of  starting  out  on  the 
wrong  track.  If  he  is  telling  a  story,  he  is  likely  to  begin 
with  something  which  happened  just  before  the  event,  but 
which  really  had  nothing  to  do  with  it.  In  other  words, 
he  begins  too  far  back.     For  instance,  a  student  who  wrote 


58  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

a  theme  on  "  A  Visit  to  an  Indian  Reservation  "  thought 
it  necessary  to  devote  one-third  of  his  space  to  an  intro- 
ductory paragraph  explaining  how  he  happened  to  be  in 
the  Indian  Territory.  Again,  the  young  writer  is  often  dis- 
posed to  start  a  little  aside  from  the  main  line  of  his  thought. 
The  following  "  introduction,"  taken  from  a  theme  entitled 
"My  Last  Year's  Work  in  the  High  School,"  illustrates 
this  kind  of  false  beginning :  — 

The  class  of  1903  in  the  A High  School  was  composed  of  thir- 
teen members,  —  six  boys  and  seven  girls.  Of  the  boys,  one  was  Irish 
and  had  an  Irishman's  mother-wit.  One  was  of  an  ethical  turn  of  mind 
and  was  always  eager  to  discuss  some  ethical  question.  Another  was  a 
linguist  and  excelled  in  his  English  work  and  in  the  modern  languages. 
Still  another  was  a  scientist  and  was  fond  of  working  out  problems  in 
chemistry  and  physics.  The  seven  girls  all  seemed  to  have  a  literary 
turn,  though  several  of  them  excelled  in  mathematics. 

The  reader  naturally  wonders  what  all  this  has  to  do  with 
the  work  that  the  writer  did  during  his  last  year  in  the  high 
school ;  and  the  writer  himself,  at  the  end  of  his  introduc- 
tion, finds  that  he  is  no  nearer  to  his  subject  than  he  was 
at  the  beginning. 

In  the  next  place,  the  writer  should  be  on  his  guard 
against  digressions.  Almost  every  one  who  has  ever  at- 
tempted to  write  knows  how  difficult  it  is  to  keep  to  the 
main  line  of  his  thought,  and  not  to  wander  away  from  his 
subject.  "To  press  to  the  sense  of  the  thing  itself  with 
which  one  is  dealing,"  says  Matthew  Arnold,  "not  to  go 
off  on  some  collateral  issue  about  the  thing,  is  the  hardest 
matter  in  the  world."  One  idea,  which  obviously  belongs 
to  the  subject,  will  often  suggest  another  idea,  which  is 
plainly  outside  the  subject,  but  which  the  writer  is  tempted 
to  use  because  he  happens  to  be  particularly  interested  in 
it.     In  this  way  one  may  lapse  into  a  digression  almost  be- 


UNITY  AND   SELECTION  59 

fore  one  is  aware  of  it  "  When  a  man  once  gets  switched 
off  on  a  digression,"  it  has  been  aptly  said,  "  he  is  like  a 
car  left  on  one  of  the  sidings  that  railroad  men  call  ■  spurs  ' ; 
he  can  have  no  hope  of  further  progress  until  he  gets  back 
to  the  main  line."  A  single  example  will  suffice  to  show 
how  easily  a  writer,  by  digressing  from  his  subject,  may 
become  completely  "  side-tracked."  A  student  who  was 
writing  a  theme  on  "  How  Hay  is  Made  "  wandered  from 
his  subject  in  order  to  explain  in  detail  the  construction  of 
the  mowing-machine :  — 

The  process  of  making  hay  is  an  interesting  study.  In  the  first 
place,  the  farmer  must  know  when  the  grass  is  in  proper  condition  to 
cut.  He  has  learned  that  as  the  grass  grows  the  nourishing  particles 
rise  toward  the  head  of  the  stalk,  and  that  at  the  same  time  the  lower 
part  of  the  stalk  begins  to  dry  out  and  turn  brown.  When  the  farmer 
notices  that  this  discoloration  has  begun,  he  knows  that  "  haying  time  " 
has  come,  and  he  begins  to  cut  his  grass.  For  this  purpose  he  uses  a 
"  mower,"  a  machine  that  cuts  a  swath  about  forty  inches  wide. 

This  machine  is,  on  the  whole,  very  simple  in  its  construction,  but  it 
has  one  very  complicated  part,  —  the  gearing.  This  gearing  is  placed 
under  a  board,  and  by  means  of  its  drivers  and  cog-wheels  the  knives 
are  worked.  The  board  just  mentioned  is  about  two' feet  wide  and 
three  feet  long.  Above  it  is  placed  a  seat  where  a  man  sits  to  regulate 
the  levers  and  to  drive  the  team.  Beneath  the  board  is  a  shaft  that 
serves  both  as  a  driver  for  the  gearing  and  as  an  axle  for  the  two 
wheels  on  which  the  machine  runs.  In  this  manner  is  obtained  the 
power  which  sets  the  machinery  in  motion.  By  means  of  this  central 
shaft,  etc. 

3.  If  the  principle  of  Selection  is  properly  applied  to 
those  ideas  which  are  just  on  the  boundary  line  of  a  subject, 
not  one  of  them  will  be  admitted  without  some  special  rea- 
son. This  fact  brings  us  to  another  important  phase  of 
Unity,  which  is  frequently  neglected  by  the  young  writer. 
Too  often  he  takes  it  for  granted  that  the  reader  will  inevi- 
tably see  why  a  given  idea  has  been  included  in  a  theme. 


60  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

The  writer  cannot  reasonably  assume  that  the  reader  pos- 
sesses any  such  power  of  intuition.  Hence,  unity  of  pur- 
pose and  unity  of  thought  are  not  of  themselves  sufficient : 
there  must  also  be  unity  of  treatment.  Nothing  can  be 
more  obvious  than  that  the  reader  should  be  able  to  see 
just  how  each  idea  relates  to  the  subject.  Unity  of  treat- 
ment requires  that  every  idea  shall  be  so  expressed  that  the 
reader  can  instantly  see  its  exact  relation  to  the  writer's 
subject  and  purpose.  If,  for  instance,  after  due  scrutiny 
and  deliberation,  the  idea  which  is  just  on  the  line  has  been 
included,  it  should  be  so  treated  that  the  reader  will  imme- 
diately see  how  it  is  connected  with  the  subject,  and,  in 
consequence,  why  it  has  received  a  place  in  the  compo- 
sition. 

4.  Another  aspect  of  Unity  has  been  variously  called 
unity  of  feeling  or  harmony  of  tone.  "  Every  composition," 
says  Professor  Newcomer,  "has  its  'pitch,'  which  should 
be  preserved  throughout.  It  may  be  oratorical  and  impas- 
sioned, it  may  be  argumentative  and  calm,  it  may  be  scien- 
tific and  technical,  it  may  be  literary  and  colloquial ;  but 
whatever  it  is,  it  should  be  consistent."  There  should  be 
no  jarring  notes,  no  discordant  tones.  One  should  remem- 
ber that  composition  aims  to  give  expression  not  only  to 
thought,  but  also  to  feeling.  Accordingly,  the  principle  of 
Unity  requires  that  a  given  piece  of  writing  possess  con- 
sistency and  unity  of  feeling  as  well  as  of  thought.  This 
emotional  consistency,  or  unity  of  feeling,  is  an  artistic 
quality.  The  average  reader  scarcely  thinks  of  it  at  all 
when  it  is  present ;  but  when  it  is  lacking,  he  realizes  that 
something  is  wrong. 

Several  examples  will  help  the  student  to  see  the  effect 
of  violating  unity  of  feeling.  Sometimes  there  may  be  a 
lack  of  harmony  within  the  limits  of  a  single  sentence.     A 


UNITY  AND   SELECTION  6 1 

country  newspaper,  for  instance,  says  of  a  deceased  citi- 
zen, "  He  was  an  affectionate  husband  and  father,  a  devout 
Christian,  and  a  life-long  Democrat."  The  following  pas- 
sage, taken  from  the  conclusion  of  a  student's  theme  on 
"A  Visit  to  an  Old-fashioned  Camp-meeting,"  illustrates 
the  effect  produced  by  disregarding  unity  of  feeling :  — 

I  shall  never  forget  the  meeting  which  I  attended  in  the  forest  that 
evening.  The  service  began  shortly  after  twilight  set  in.  The  sombre 
oak  trees,  the  gathering  shadows  of  night,  the  flickering  streaks  of  light 
from  the  torches,  glancing  here  and  there  through  the  branches,  all 
helped  to  make  the  scene  and  the  occasion  impressive.  When  the  ser- 
vice began,  I  knew  for  the  first  time  what  Bryant  meant  when  he  said, 
"The  groves  were  God's  first  temples."  The  audience  was,  for  the 
most  part,  composed  of  simple-minded,  impressionable  country  people. 
The  minister,  a  sweet-faced  old  gentleman  with  snowy  locks,  was  elo- 
quent and  fervent.  His  voice  was  at  first  quiet  and  subdued,  but  it  soon 
became  earnest  and  impassioned.  He  spoke  in  tones  of  awful  convic- 
tion and  warning.  His  listeners  were  profoundly  moved.  Soon  the 
penitents  came  forward  and  crowded  about  the  rude  railing.  They 
sobbed  and  moaned  and  prayed.  At  times  their  voices  rose  in  a  loud 
wail.  And  yet  above  all  the  tumult  could  be  heard  the  clear  warning 
tones  of  the  preacher.  At  last  I  looked  at  my  watch  and  saw  that  he 
had  been  speaking  just  one  hour  and  ten  minutes.  I  rose  and  went  to 
the  hitching-post  where  my  horse  was  tied.  As  I  had  already  stayed 
longer  than  I  had  intended,  I  was  in  a  hurry  to  get  home  ;  and  so  I  took 
the  Danville  road,  although  I  knew  that  it  had  been  made  very  dusty  by 
the  many  vehicles  which  had  passed  that  way. 

Most  readers  will  feel  that  the  last  three  sentences  of 
this  passage  strike  a  discordant  note.  The  truth  is,  they 
are  not  in  harmony  with  the  preceding  part  of  the  compo- 
sition. To  express  the  same  idea  a  little  differently,  they 
are  clearly  below  the  emotional  level  of  the  rest  of  the  pas- 
sage. That  is  to  say,  they  violate  unity  of  feeling,  and 
naturally  lead  one  to  suspect  the  writer's  sincerity. 

Briefly  to  recapitulate :  To  secure  consistency  and  unity 


62  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

of  purpose,  a  writer  should  have  a  clear  conception  of  his 
subject,  a  definite  aim  in  writing,  some  notion  of  the  read- 
er's knowledge  and  ability,  and  a  fixed  point  of  view.  He 
should  take  pains  not  to  destroy  the  unity  of  his  composi- 
tion by  changing  the  point  of  view.  In  order  that  his 
theme  may  possess  unity  of  thought,  the  student  should 
make  a  careful  selection  of  ideas.  He  should  not  admit 
any  irrelevant  ideas ;  he  should  choose  only  what  is  impor- 
tant and  essential ;  and  he  should  not  leave  out  any  idea 
that  is  indispensable  to  the  development  of  his  subject. 
One  way  in  which  a  writer  may  help  himself  in  making  a 
choice  of  ideas  is  to  put  himself  in  the  reader's  place  and 
ask  himself  questions  about  his  subject.  Another  way  is 
to  jot  down  all  the  possible  ideas  on  a  subject  and  to  make 
a  selection  by  a  process  of  exclusion.  Against  irrelevant 
introductions  and  digressions  the  student  should  be  espe- 
cially on  his  guard,  since  these  are  the  two  most  common 
ways  of  violating  the  unity  of  thought.  All  the  ideas  that 
are  admitted  into  a  theme  should  receive  unity  of  treat- 
ment ;  that  is,  they  should  be  so  expressed  that  the  reader 
can  readily  see  their  connection  with  the  subject  and  with 
the  writer's  purpose.  One  should  also  be  careful  not  to  de- 
stroy unity  of  feeling  by  using  any  idea  or  expression  that 
is  not  in  accord  with  the  general  tone  of  the  composition. 

EXERCISES 

I.    i.    Jot  down'  all  the  ideas  that  suggest  themselves  as  possible 
materia]  for  a  theme  on  any  one  of  the  following  subjects  :  — 

i.  My  Preparation  for College  (or- School). 

2.  Why  I  Came  to College. 

3.  My  Preparation  in  English. 

4.  Who  I  Am. 

5.  The  Needs  of  my  Preparatory  School. 


UNITY   AND   SELECTION  63 

6.  My  Last  Year  in  the School. 

7.  My  Journey  to College  (or School). 

8.  The  Teacher  Who  has  Helped  me  Most. 

9.  The  Chief  Industries  of  my  Native  Town. 
10.  My  Best  Friend. 

2.  Examine  each  idea  in  your  list  with  a  view  to  determining  whether 
it  should  receive  a  place  in  your  theme. 

3.  Write  your  theme,  using  only  those  ideas  which  you  have  selected 
after  careful  consideration. 

II.  Write  a  brief  description  of  a  student's  room  from  different  points 
of  view,  as  follows  :  — 

1.  Individualize  the  room;  that  is  to  say,  in  describing  it,  dwell  on 
those  things  that  give  the  room  individuality,  those  details  that  make  it 
differ  from  all  other  rooms. 

2.  Describe  the  room  in  such  a  manner  as  to  indicate  the  character 
of  its  occupant. 

3.  Suppose  that  an  old  man  who  had  occupied  the  room  forty  years 
before- should  call  on  the  present  occupant.  Describe  the  room  from 
the  standpoint  of  this  imaginary  visitor. 

4.  Suppose  that  your  father  or  mother  should  make  you  an  un- 
expected visit.  Describe  the  room  from  your  father's  or  mother's 
standpoint. 

5.  Describe  the  room  from  an  impressionist's  standpoint;  that  is, 
dwell  only  on  the  most  striking  features  and  heighten  these. 

6.  Describe  the  room  simply  for  information :  give  its  dimensions ; 
make  a  list  of  the  articles  it  contains ;  tell  what  position  each  occupies. 

III.  Criticise  the  following  theme  in  regard  to  unity  of  purpose  and 
the  selection  of  ideas  :  — 


Some  Places  of  Interest  near  my  Home 

There  are  many  places  of  interest  in  the  West  Branch  Valley  in 
Clinton  County. 

The  mountains,  hills,  and  valleys  are  bare  of  timber  except  for  a  few 
trees  here  and  there,  which  were  left  standing  when  the  lumberman 
passed  through  with  his  ax. 

About  thirty  years  ago  this  valley  was  considered  the  best  timber- 
producing  region  in  the  state.      The  mountains  were  covered  with  a 


64  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

heavy  growth  of  pine  and  oak,  interspersed  with  chestnut,  walnut,  hem- 
lock, maple,  and  hickory.  For  the  last  thirty  years  lumbering  has 
played  an  important  part  in  the  industrial  and  commercial  life  of  this 
vicinity.  It  is  said  that  several  million  feet  of  lumber  have  been  floated 
down  the  river  each  year  since  the  lumbermen  came  into  the  region. 

On  the  hills  and  in  the  valleys  near  my  home  are  many  natural  curi- 
osities. At  no  great  distance  from  my  father's  farm  there  is  a  large 
table-like  expanse  of  rock,  with  a  single  tall  tree  growing  in  the  very 
midst  of  it,  and  with  a  carpet  of  moss  and  a  thick  growth  of  small 
shrubbery  surrounding  it. 

In  the  small  streams  there  are  many  waterfalls  from  eight  to  ten  feet 
high.  These  waterfalls  are  very  beautiful,  especially  in  winter,  when 
they  freeze  solid. 

The  bottom  of  the  Susquehanna  River,  about  two  miles  from  my 
house,  is  composed  of  a  solid  layer  of  rock,  which  extends  for  a  distance 
of  about  half  a  mile.  Here  the  water  is  very  shallow  and  during  the 
summer  months  is  never  more  than  two  or  three  feet  deep.  On  one 
side  of  the  river  the  mountain-side  extends  down  to  the  edge  of  the 
water,  and  for  a  distance  of  half  a  mile  small  springs  ooze  out  of  the 
rocks  near  the  edge  of  the  water.  These  springs  give  forth  water  which 
has  a  very  salty  taste.  During  the  summer  the  cows  which  the  villagers 
have  turned  out  to  pasture  may  be  seen  licking  these  rocks  all  day 
long. 

On  the  side  of  the  mountain  just  opposite  the  town  there  is  a  large 
stone-quarry.  This  quarry,  which  is  no  longer  used,  was  opened  up 
in  order  to  furnish  the  ballast  needed  for  the  railroad  that  was  built 
through  the  valley  more  than  a  decade  ago.  The  whole  mountain 
seems  to  be  a  solid  rock,  and  tlr's  great  hole  is  a  very  interesting 
sight. 

On  the  mountain  which  faces  the  other  side  of  the  town  there  is  an- 
other interesting  sight.  Near  the  top  and  extending  the  whole  length 
of  the  mountain,  which  is  nearly  a  mile  long,  there  is  a  row  of  stones 
about  a  hundred  feet  wide.  There  is  not  a  tree  or  bush  of  any  kind 
here,  because  there  is  not  enough  earth  to  support  vegetation.  The 
place  looks  as  though  the  trees  had  been  cut  down  in  this  one  place, 
while  the  other  trees  had  been  left  standing. 

At  another  place,  near  the  top  of  the  mountains,  there  is  a  small  pla- 
teau, which  is  called  "  Birch  Flat "  on  account  of  a  species  of  birch  that 
grows   there.     The   trees   are   snow-white   and  are   commonly  called 


UNITY   AND   SELECTION  6$ 

"white  birch.1'  This  place  is  particularly  noticeable  in  the  autumn 
when  the  leaves  have  fallen  from  the  other  trees,  for  this  is  the  only 
place  where  the  white  birch  is  known  to  grow. 

Near  my  home  are  many  other  noteworthy  sights,  which,  though 
they  may  seem  ordinary,  are  nevertheless  very  interesting  to  close  ob- 
servers of  nature. 


CHAPTER   VIII 

COHERENCE 

• 

After  the  writer  has  selected  the  ideas  that  he  intends 
to  use,  his  next  care  should  be  to  find  a  clear  and  orderly 
arrangement.  If  the  ideas  have  been  selected  with  a  view 
to  unity,  they  will  necessarily  bear  some  relation  not  only  to 
the  subject  under  discussion,  but  also  to  one  another.  It 
is  their  relation  to  the  subject  that  justifies  the  writer  in 
using  them  as  material  for  his  composition ;  but  unless  he 
can  so  present  them  as  to  show  their  logical  relation  to  one 
another,  his  composition  as  a  whole  will  fail  to  produce  an 
impression  of  unity.  It  is  the  principle  of  Coherence  that 
governs  the  logical  relation  of  ideas  and  binds  them  firmly 
together  in  a  coherent  and  consistent  whole. 

This  principle  as  applied  to  the  whole  composition  is 
chiefly  a  question  of  order  or  arrangement.  A  writer 
cannot,  of  course,  present  his  thoughts  all  at  once,  but 
must  be  content  to  write  them  down  one  at  a  time.  He 
proceeds  step  by  step.  He  analyzes  his  subject  and  divides 
it  into  a  number  of  subdivisions.  Each  subdivision  or  topic 
represents  one  of  the  main  ideas  of  his  theme.  To  the  de- 
velopment of  each  he  plans  to  give  a  separate  paragraph. 
Closely  related  to  each  topic  are  various  subordinate 
thoughts  to  be  used  in  building  up  the  paragraph.  The 
paragraphs  which  thus  make  up  the  whole  composition 
are  not  distinct  and  independent  units,  but  are  all  related 

66 


COHERENCE  67 

to  the  subject  and  to  one  another.  It  is  an  important  part 
of  the  writer's  task  to  make  their  relation  perfectly  clear  to 
the  reader.  Each  paragraph,  each  sentence  must  be  made 
to  serve  as  a 'natural  and  logical  link  in  the  writer's  chain 
of  thought.  The  reader  must  be  able  to  see  why  one  idea 
precedes  another,  why  one  paragraph  is  placed  after  an- 
other. Each  part  should  be  clearly  related  to  that  which 
precedes  and  to  that  which  follows.  There  should  be  no 
weak  or  broken  links.  The  whole  should  be  firmly  and 
closely  bound  together.  In  the  arrangement  of  his  ideas 
the  writer  should  keep  his  reader  from  all  possibility  of 
misapprehension,  confusion,  or  perplexity.  This  result 
can  be  accomplished  only  by  careful  attention  to  the 
order  of  thought. 

A  coherent  arrangement  is  not  the  result  of  mere 
chance  or  whim :  coherent  composition  is  the  natural  out- 
come of  coherent  thinking.  The  human  mind  works  in 
accordance  with  certain  laws  of  association.  With  these 
laws  we  are  all  more  or  less  familiar,  for  they  help  to  regu- 
late our  mental  activities.  The  things  that  we  perceive 
and  know  become  so  closely  related  in  our  thoughts  that 
one  idea  naturally  and  invariably  suggests  another.  One 
event,  for  instance,  makes  us  think  of  another  event  that 
happened  at  the  same  time  or  immediately  afterward.  The 
sight  or  thought  of  some  well-known  object  calls  to  mind 
some  other  closely  associated  object.  Again,  if  we  are  try- 
ing to  explain  to  a  friend  some  strange  mechanical  con- 
trivance, or  to  describe  some  object  unfamiliar  to  him,  we 
naturally  say  that  it  is  like  or  unlike  something  else  with 
which  he  is  familiar.  Or  if  something  startling  or  unus- 
ual has  happened,  we  are  prompted  by  a  natural  impulse 
to  ask  the  cause.  Thus  our  ideas  seem  to  be  naturally 
related  by  the  laws  of  association ;  and  it  is  the  part  of 


68  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

wisdom  for  us  to  use  these  laws  for  the  purpose  of  secur- 
ing a  logical  arrangement  for  our  ideas. 

These  laws  of  association  have  to  do  with  four  distinct 
relations.  The  first  is  the  relation  which  events  bear  to 
one  another  in  sequence  of  time.  One  naturally  thinks 
of  events  in  the  order  of  their  occurrence.  The  writer, 
then,  in  narrating  a  succession  of  incidents,  finds  it  best  to 
follow  a  chronological  order.  The  second  relation  is  that 
of  nearness  in  space.  Objects  which  are  placed  near  one 
another  are  naturally  associated  together.  When  a  person 
looks  at  a  number  of  objects  in  space,  he  is  generally  im- 
pressed first  by  those  that  are  near,  or  by  those  that  are 
most  prominent.  More  remote  objects  and  more  minute 
details  are  seen  later.  The  third  law  of  association  is  that 
of  similarity.  The  human  mind,  in  dealing  with  what  is 
new  and  unfamiliar,  naturally  seeks  some  point  of  likeness 
to  something  that  is  already  known.  This  fact  gives  the 
writer  a  valuable  suggestion.  When  he  sets  out  to  explain 
something,  he  usually  starts  with  what  is  already  familiar 
to  his  reader  and  proceeds  to  what  is  unknown.  The 
fourth  law  to  be  noticed  is  the  law  of  cause  and  effect.  A 
cause  generally  suggests  its  accompanying  effect ;  and  an 
effect  suggests  the  cause  that  produced  it.  They  are  in- 
variably associated.  This  law  can  frequently  be  used  to 
give  logical  coherence  to  expository  and  argumentative 
writing. 

These  considerations  will  generally  suggest  how  the 
writer  may  best  arrange  his  ideas.  Each  kind  of  composi- 
tion has  its  characteristic  sequence  of  thought.  Whenever 
the  element  of  time  is  prominent,  as  in  narrative  writing, 
it  is  best  to  follow  the  chronological  order.  In  description 
it  is  natural  to  pass  from  the  near  to  the  remote,  and  from 
prominent  objects  or   features  to  matters   of   detail.     In 


COHERENCE  69 

exposition  it  is  frequently  best  to  proceed  from  the  familiar 
to  the  unfamiliar,  from  the  known  to  the  unknown.  In 
argumentation  the  writer  or  speaker  often  starts  with  a 
fact  or  a  statement  which  is  admitted  to  be  true,  and  in 
proceeding  with  his  discussion  uses  the  law  of  cause  and 
effect  to  give  logical  coherence  to  his  argument.  It  must 
not  be  supposed,  however,  that  these  suggestions  are  of 
the  nature  of  rules,  to  be  followed  inflexibly.  The  writer, 
in  deciding  upon  the  best  arrangement  for  his  material, 
may  sometimes  combine  several  of  these  laws  of  associa- 
tion. There  may  also  arise  special  cases  in  which  each 
order  here  suggested  will  have  to  be  modified. 

The  chronological  order  the  writer  will  find  to  be  the 
natural  arrangement  in  dealing  with  a  series  of  events  or 
with  a  succession  of  actions  that  follow  one  another  in  the 
order  of  time.  In  narration  the  sequence  of  ideas  is 
simple  and  natural.  The  writer  is  not  obliged  to  ponder 
over  the  problem  of  coherent  arrangement :  the  order  is 
ready-made.  In  most  cases  all  he  has  to  do  is  to  take  up 
the  incidents  of  his  story  in  the  order  of  their  occurrence. 
The  strictly  chronological  order  may,  of  course,  occasion- 
ally be  modified  for  the  sake  of  securing  greater  effective- 
ness. 

The  Parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son  presents  a  good  ex- 
ample of  a  coherent  narrative.  The  three  steps  in  the 
progress  of  the  story  may  be  represented  by  the  following 
brief  statements :  (1)  The  younger  son  leaves  home  and  be- 
comes a  prodigal.  (2)  When  he  repents  and  returns,  his 
father  receives  him  joyfully.  (3)  The  elder  son  sulks  and 
is  reproved.  These  are  taken  up  in  the  order  of  time, 
and  a  paragraph  is  given  to  each.  Within  each  paragraph 
and  throughout  the  story,  the  events  follow  one  another 
in  strictly  chronological  order. 


70  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 


i.  The  Prodigal  Son 

A  certain  man  had  two  sons.  And  the  younger  of  them  said  to  his 
father,  "  Father,  give  me  the  portion  of  goods  that  falleth  to  me."  And 
He  leaves  ^e  divided  unto  them  his  living.  And  not  many  days  after, 
home  and  the  younger  son  gathered  all  together,  and  took  his  jour- 
becomes  a  ney  into  a  far  country,  and  there  wasted  his  substance  in 
prodigal.  riotous  living.  And  when  he  had  spent  all,  there  arose  a 
mighty  famine  in  that  land  ;  and  he  began  to  be  in  want.  And  he  went 
and  joined  himself  to  a  citizen  of  that  country ;  and  he  sent  him  into 
his  fields  to  feed  swine.  And  he  fain  would  have  filled  his  belly  with 
the  husks  that  the  swine  did  eat ;  and  no  man  gave  unto  him. 

And  when  he  came  to  himself,  he  said,  "  How  many  hired  servants 
of  my  father's  have  bread  enough  and  to  spare,  and  I  perish  with  hunger  ! 
I  will  arise  and  go  to  my  father,  and  say  unto  him,  '  Father, 
pents  and  *  ^ave  smned  against  heaven  and  before  thee,  and  am  no 
returns,  his  more  worthy  to  be  called  thy  son  :  make  me  as  one  of  thy 
father  re-  hired  servants.' "  And  he  arose  and  came  to  his  father, 
ceives  1m  -gut  wjj^  he  was  yet  a  great  way  off,  his  father  saw  him,  and 
had  compassion,  and  ran,  and  fell  on  his  neck,  and  kissed 
him.  And  the  son  said  unto  him,  "Father,  I  have  sinned  against 
heaven,  and  before  thy  sight,  and  am  no  more  worthy  to  be  called  thy 
son."  -  But  the  father  said  to  the  servants,  "  Bring  forth  the  best  robe, 
and  put  it  on  him  ;  and  put  a  ring  on  his  hand,  and  shoes  on  his  feet ; 
and  bring  hither  the  fatted  calf  and  kill  it ;  and  let  us  eat  and  be  merry  ; 
for  this  my  son  was  dead,  and  is  alive  again ;  he  was  lost,  and  is  found." 
And  they  began  to  be  merry. 

Now  his  elder  son  was  in  the  field ;  and  as  he  came  and  drew  nigh 
to  the  house,  he  heard  music  and  dancing.  And  he  called  one  of 
The  elder  ^is  servants>  and  asked  what  these  things  meant.  And 
son  sulks  they  said  unto  him,  "  Thy  brother  is  come  ;  and  thy  father 
and  is  re-  hath  killed  the  fatted  calf  because  he  hath  received  him 
proved.  safe  an(j  sounc}  "     ^nd  he  was  angry,  and  would  not  go 

in  ;  therefore  came  his  father  out  and  entreated  him.  And  he,  answer- 
ing, said  to  his  father,  "  Lo,  these  many  years  do  I  serve  thee,  neither 
transgressed  I  at  any  time  thy  commandment ;  and  yet  thou  never 
gavest  me  a  kid  that  I  might  make  merry  with  my  friends.  But  as  soon 
as  this  thy  son  was  come,  which  hath  devoured  his  living  with  harlots, 


COHERENCE  7 1 

thou  hast  killed  for  him  the  fatted  ealf."  And  he  said  unto  him,  "  Son, 
thou  art  ever  with  me,  and  all  that  I  have  is  thine.  It  was  meet  that 
we  should  make  merry  and  be  glad :  for  this  thy  brother  was  dead,  and 
is  alive  again ;  and  was  lost,  and  is  found." 

Frequently,  however,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  sub- 
ject, the  element  of  time  does  not  enter  into  the  composi- 
tion ;  and  consequently  the  chronological  arrangement  can- 
not be  used.  In  such  cases  the  problem  of  coherence  is 
always  more  difficult.  In  descriptions,  for  instance,  the 
element  of  space  is  most  prominent.  Although  the  whole 
of  an  object  or  scene  is  spread  out  at  once  before  the  eye 
of  the  beholder,  he  can  describe  only  one  part  at  a  time. 
The  scene  must  be  presented  little  by  little  until  the  vari- 
ous parts,  by  adroit  arrangement,  give  the  reader  a  correct 
impression  of  the  whole.  This  end  the  writer  can  accom- 
plish by  starting  with  objects  that  are  near  and  passing 
to  those  that  are  remote,  or  by  rendering  first  the  more 
prominent  parts  and  then  the  details.  In  descriptive  writ- 
ing it  is  natural  to  take  up  the  parts  in  this  order  because 
this  is  the  order  in  which  they  impress  the  beholder. 

The  following  description  of  the  Yosemite  Valley  illus- 
trates this  method  of  arrangement.  In  the  first  paragraph 
the  writer  draws  the  outlines  of  the  valley  as  a  whole ;  in 
the  second  he  describes  the  part  nearest  in  space,  the  one 
prominent  thing  in  the  very  midst  of  the  valley,  —  the  river 
that  flows  through  it ;  in  the  third  he  pictures  a  more  dis- 
tant object,  —  the  great  mountain  wall ;  and  in  the  fourth 
he  describes  the  far-off  peaks  that  dominate  the  scene. 
Further,  within  each  paragraph,  it  will  be  observed,  the 
general  order  is  from  points  of  prominence  to  matters  of 
detail.  This  plan  is  not  obtruded  upon  the  reader's  notice ; 
he  will  scarcely  think  of  the  method  unless  his  attention  is 
called  to  it ;  yet  the  arrangement  of  ideas  seems  perfectly 


72  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

natural  throughout.  The  order  is  admirably  adapted  to 
the  purpose  of  giving  the  reader  a  coherent  impression  of 
the  whole  scene. 

2.   The  Yosemite  Valley 

The  one  distinguishing  feature  of  the  Yosemite  is  a  double  wall  of 

perpendicular  granite,  rising  from  half  a  mile  to  a  mile  in  height,  and 

enclosing  a  valley  about  half  a  mile  in  average  width,  and 

e  va  ey      from  s[x  t0  eight  miles  in  length.     It  is  a  chasm,  rather 
as  a  whole.  p  .,.,',.  . 

than  a  valley,  in  mountains  of  solid  rock.     At  many  points 

there  is  not  breadth  enough  for  one  of  its  walls  to  lie  down ;  and  yet  it 
offers  all  the  fertility  and  all  the  beauties  of  a  rich  valley.  There  is 
meadow  with  thick  grass  ;  there-  are  groves  of  pine  and  oak,  —  the  former 
exquisite  in  form  and  majestic  in  size,  —  rising  often  to  one  hundred  and 
fifty  and  even  two  hundred  feet  in  height ;  there  are  thickets  of  willow 
and  birch,  bay  trees  and  dogwood,  and  various  flowering  shrubs  ;  prim- 
rose and  cowslip  and  golden-rod  and  violet  and  painted-cup,  more  deli- 
cate than  Eastern  skies  can  welcome,  make  gay  garden  of  all  the  vacant 
fields  in  August.  The  air  is  heavy  with  the  aroma  of  mint,  of  flowers, 
of  pine  and  fir. 

Winding  in  and  out  among  all  flows  the  Merced  River,  so  pure  and 

transparent  that  one  can  hardly  tell  where  the  air  leaves  off  and  the 

.  water  begins.     It  rolls  rapidly  over  polished  stones  or  soft 

sands,  or  stays  in  wide,  deep  pools  that  invite  the  bather 
and  the  boat.  The  trees,  the  shrubs,  and  the  flowers  that  grow  along 
the  Merced  are  much  the  same  in  general  character  and  variety  as  those 
that  grow  in  the  valleys  of  New  England  ;  but  they  are  richer  in  devel- 
opment and  greater  in  number.  They  borrow  of  the  mountain  fecun- 
dity and  sweetness,  and  they  are  fed  by  occasional  summer  rains  as  those 
of  other  California  valleys  rarely  are. 

Now  imagine,  rising  up  sheer  and  sharp,  on  each  side  of  this  line  of 
fertile  beauty,  irregularly  flowing  and  variously  crowned  walls  of  granite 

rock,  thrice  as  high  as  Mount  Tom  and  Mount  Holyoke, 
tain  wall        anc*  ^°^f  as  n^  as  Mount  Washington.     The  one  great, 

conspicuous  object  of  the  valley  is  this  massive,  two-sided 
wall,  standing  out  into  and  over  the  meadow,  and  rising  up  into  space 
— unbroken,  square,  perpendicular — for  fully  three  quarters  of  a  mile. 
The  color  of  the  rock  varies  greatly.     A  grayish  drab  or  yellow  —  warm 


COHERENCE 


'- 


and  soft  —  is  the  dominant  shade.  In  large  spots,  it  whitens  out;  and 
again  it  is  dark  and  discolored  as  if  by  long  exposure  to  rain  and  snow 
and  wind.  Sometimes,  on  a  single  wall,  the  light  and  dark  shades  are 
thrown  into  sharp  contrast. 

Over  the  sides  of  the  mountain  wall  pour  streams  of  water  out  of 
narrow  valleys  still  above ;   and   yet  higher  and  farther  away  rise  to 
twelve  and  thirteen  thousand  feet  the  culminating  peaks  of 
the  Sierra  Nevadas,  with  ever  visible  fields  of  melting  snow.        *k  1S  an 
These  mighty  mountains  look  down  upon  all  forms  and 
shapes  and  colors  of  majesty  and  beauty.     This  narrow  spot  seems  to 
have  been  created  as  the  home  of  all  that  is  richest  in  inspiration  for 
painting,  for  poetry,  for  heroic  living,  for  imaginative  religion. 

In  exposition  and  argument  Coherence  is  generally  a 
more  difficult  matter  than  in  narrative  and  descriptive 
discourse.  Sometimes,  to  be  sure,  particularly  in  the  ex- 
position of  special  processes,  the  chronological  order  is  the 
best.  Exposition  and  argument,  however,  do  not  as  a  rule 
follow  any  law  of  continuity  in  time  or  of  contiguity  in 
space.  In  these  two  kinds  of  composition  the  sequence  of 
ideas  is  determined  not  so  much  by  external  conditions  as 
by  the  internal  relation  of  thought.  The  elements  of  time 
and  space  may  be  entirely  absent.  Even  when  present, 
they  are  usually  of  less  importance  than  the  strictly  logical 
connection  of  the  ideas  presented.  Now  in  narration  and 
description  the  coherent  order  lies,  as  it  were,  on  the  sur- 
face. The  arrangement  of  ideas  is  determined  by  the 
actual  order  of  events,  or  by  the  relative  position  and 
prominence  of  objects  in  space.  In  exposition  and  argu- 
ment, on  the  other  hand,  the  relation  of  ideas  is  not  external 
and  physical,  but  internal  and  mental.  It  is  obvious,  then, 
that  the  strictly  logical  connection  of  ideas  is  not  always 
in  plain  view. 

Exposition  and  argument  constitute  what  has  fitly  been 
styled   "the  literature  of  thought."     They  are  both  the 


74  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

result  of-  reasoning  processes.  They  do  not  deal  primarily 
with  events  or  with  the  outward  aspect  of  things.  They 
seek  not  to  tell  how  events  happen,  or  how  objects  look, 
but  to  explain  the  nature  of  things  and  the  cause  of 
phenomena.  The  literature  of  thought  aims  not  at  the 
expression  of  particular  facts,  but  at  the  presentation  of 
general  truth.  An  exposition  explains  some  phenomenon, 
or  makes  a  statement  of  general  characteristics ;  its  main 
business  is  to  furnish  instruction  and  information.  An 
argument  seeks  to  convince  men  of  the  truth  of  a  propo- 
sition. To  accomplish  these  ends,  both  these  types  of 
composition  must  take  account  of  the  law  of  cause  and 
effect.  Strictly  speaking,  both  are  logical  processes ;  and 
in  both  the  writer  must  take  pains  to  make  the  reader  see 
the  logical  relation  of  his  ideas. 

The  very  nature  of  the  literature  of  thought  shows  how 
important  and  at  the  same  time  how  difficult  it  is  for  the 
writer  to  secure  a  logical  arrangement.  To  present  his 
ideas  in  a  coherent  order,  he  must  take  into  account  the 
way  in  which  the  normally  constituted  mind  usually  works. 
It  is  hard  to  lay  down  any  more  definite  general  rule. 
Only  by  close  and  careful  thinking  can  the  writer  hope 
to  hit  upon  the  most  coherent  arrangement.  The  logical 
order  he  must  seek  and  find  for  himself.  Each  composi- 
tion thus  becomes  a  separate  problem  in  Coherence.  The 
paramount  facts  which  the  writer  must  remember  are  that 
the  successive  ideas  in  an  exposition  or  in  an  argument  are 
connected  by  an  internal  logical  relation ;  that  the  main 
ideas  must  therefore  follow  one  another  in  logical  se- 
quence ;  and  that  this  careful  attention  to  arrangement 
is  necessary  in  order  that  the  thought  may  be  presented 
to  the  reader  in  a  clear  and  comprehensible  manner. 

Although  it  is  not  possible  to  lay  down  any  rule  by 


COHERENCE  75 

which  the  writer  can  see  at  once  the  logical  order  for  his 
thoughts,  a  few  general  suggestions  may  be  of  some  ser- 
vice to  him.  In  exposition  and  argument  it  is  natural,  as 
has  been  pointed  out,  to  start  with  what  is  already  known 
or  believed  to  be  true.  From  this  standpoint  of  common 
knowledge  or  belief  the  writer  can  lead  the  reader  logi- 
cally, step  by  step,  to  the  various  points  which  are  to  be 
explained  or  proved.  For  the  literature  of  thought  the 
familiar  order  usually  followed  in  the  demonstration  of  a 
theorem  in  geometry  may  be  considered  as,  in  a  sense,  the 
typical  arrangement.  The  general  order  is  from  the  known 
to  the  unknown ;  and  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect,  the 
law  of  reason  and  result,  is  the  logical  principle  that  binds 
the  various  parts  together  in  a  coherent  whole. 

The  student  will  have  no  difficulty  in  finding  examples 
to  illustrate  the  way  in  which  the  principle  of  Coherence 
is  applied  to  the  literature  of  thought.  He  may  study  any 
of  the  chapters  of  this  book  for  the  purpose  of  seeing  how 
the  writer  has  sought  to  present  his  discussion  in  a  logical 
order.  An  examination  of  the  table  of  contents  will  show 
how  the  same  principle  has  been  applied  to  a  more  ex- 
tended exposition.  The  student  will  find  it  still  more 
instructive  to  note  how  the  principle  has  been  used  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  coherence  in  a  short  composition. 
For  the  sake  of  illustration  the  following  theme  on  "  How 
to  Write  a  Good  Paragraph  "  has  been  introduced.  The 
student  is  asked  to  note  the  order  of  thought  in  this  theme. 
First,  the  Paragraph  is  defined.  The  principle  of  Unity 
is  next  discussed  because  it  is  to  this  principle  that  the 
Paragraph  owes  its  existence.  The  principle  of  Coherence 
is  then  taken  up  before  that  of  Emphasis  because  the 
writer's  paramount  aim  should  be  to  make  his  thought 
clear.     The  discussion  of  Emphasis  follows  that  of  Cohe- 


y6  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

rence  because  force  is  secondary  to  clearness.  This  seems 
to  be  the  most  logical  order.  As  it  is  not  necessarily  the 
most  emphatic  arrangement,  the  concluding  paragraph 
gives  emphasis  to  the  main  ideas  by  summarizing  the 
thought  of  the  whole  theme. 

3.  How  to  Write  a  Good  Paragraph 

A  paragraph  is  a  series  of  connected  thoughts  which  constitute  the 
development  of  a  single  topic.     In  every  paragraph  one  definite  idea, 
fi    t-  clearly  and  forcibly  expressed,  should  be  immediately  evi- 

dent to  the  reader.  In  this  definition  are  implied  all  the 
essentials  of  a  good  paragraph.  First,  the  paragraph  is  the  develop- 
ment of  a  single  idea,  and  therefore  it  must  be  a  unit.  Secondly,  it  is 
a  series  of  connected  thoughts,  and  hence  it  must  possess  Coherence. 
Thirdly,  its  main  idea  should  be  made  to  stand  out  prominently ;  the 
most  important  points  in  the  paragraph  should  give  emphatic  expres- 
sion to  the  central  thought.  A  paragraph,  then,  may  be  regarded  as  a 
small  theme,  and  it  is  consequently  governed  by  the  same  principles 
that  govern  the  whole  composition.  To  produce  a  good  paragraph, 
therefore,  the  writer  must  apply  to  his  work  the  fundamental  principles 
of  Unity,  Coherence,  and  Emphasis. 

The  principle  of  Unity  requires  that  the  paragraph  be  about  one 
main  idea,  clearly  separated  from  everything  else.  All  the  thoughts 
that  are  necessary  for  a  thorough  explanation  of  this  sin- 
gle idea  should  be  grouped  about  it;  for  unless  this  is 
done,  the  paragraph  will  present  only  the  fraction  of  an  idea.  At  the 
same  time,  the  writer  should  be  very  careful  not  to  admit  any  thought 
that  does  not  contribute  to  the  explanation  of  the  main  topic.  If  any 
outside  thought  is  included,  the  paragraph  will  contain  several  distinct 
ideas  and  will  no  longer  be  a  unit.  Such  a  paragraph  is  faulty  because 
it  is  likely  to  confuse  and  mislead  the  reader.  It  is  necessary,  then,  to 
avoid  any  digression  or  break  in  the  series  of  connected  thoughts  that 
make  up  a  paragraph.  As  a  final  test  for  unity,  the  writer  should  try 
to  sum  up  the  whole  paragraph  in  a  single  sentence. 

The  second  principle  which  must  be  regarded  in  making  a  good 
paragraph  is  that  of  Coherence.  This  principle  requires  that  all  the 
subordinate   thoughts   introduced  for  the   purpose  of  explaining   the 


COHERENCE  77 

central  idea  of  the  paragraph  shall  be  clearly  and  logically  arranged. 
The  sentences   of    each  paragraph   should    be   closely   connected   in 

thought,  and  should  follow  each  other  in  a  logical  order.    _ 
,       &      ,        lU.        ,  ,        f  Coherence. 

In  narratives  this  coherent  arrangement  of  sentences  is  se- 
cured by  relating  events  in  the  order  of  their  occurrence.  In  some  kinds 
of  writing,  however,  such  as  exposition  and  description,  a  chronological 
arrangement  is  impossible.  To  secure  coherence  in  such  compositions, 
the  writer  must  resort  to  some  other  order.  When  he  cannot  follow 
the  sequence  of  events,  he  will  find  it  best  to  begin  with  what  is  known 
and  advance  to  what  is  unknown,  or  to  start  with  what  is  near  and  pro- 
ceed to  what  is  remote.  In  this  way  a  coherent  arrangement  of  the 
related  thoughts  in  a  paragraph  may  usually  be  obtained. 

The  third  and  last  requirement  of  a  good  paragraph  is  that  it  shall 
possess  Emphasis.  In  every  paragraph  there  are  undoubtedly  some 
parts  which  ought  to  be  made  more  conspicuous  than 
others.  That  the  most  important  parts  of  a  paragraph 
may  be  duly  emphasized,  they  should  be  placed  in  the  most  prominent 
positions,  which  are  the  beginning  and  the  end.  The  beginning  is  an 
important  place  in  the  paragraph  because  it  is  the  part  that  the  reader 
sees  first.  The  end  is  also  important  because  the  reader  sees  it  last. 
The  opening  sentence  of  the  paragraph  should  be  short  and  clear,  and 
should  usually  phrase  the  main  thought.  The  last  sentence  should  gen- 
erally contain  an  emphatic  concluding  statement  of  the  central  idea. 
In  the  body  of  the  paragraph  should  be  placed  whatever  is  essential  to 
the  development  of  the  topic,  —  details,  which  are  necessarily  of  minor 
importance.  Thus  each  idea  will  receive  prominence  in  proportion  to 
its  relative  value. 

In  short,  the  paragraph  is  simply  a  miniature  composition.  To  write 
a  good  paragraph,  one  is  obliged  to  observe  the  principles  of  Unity, 
Coherence,  and  Emphasis.  Every  sentence  should  help 
to  amplify  one  central  thought.  All  the  sentences  should 
be  arranged  in  a  natural,  comprehensible  order,  and  should  be  firmly 
and  logically  bound  together.  The  central  idea  should  receive  emphatic 
expression  and  should  occupy  a  position  of  prominence.  A  paragraph 
thus  constructed  will  leave  upon  the  reader's  mind  a  distinct  impression 
of  one  idea  fully  and  logically  developed. 

From  the  foregoing  discussion  of  Coherence  it  is  evident 
that  the  chief  service  which  this  principle  performs  is  to 


yS  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

help  the  reader  to  a  quick  and  correct  apprehension  of  the 
writer's  thought.  In  his  endeavor  to  secure  coherence, 
moreover,  the  writer  himself  often  receives  valuable  guid- 
ance and  suggestion.  In  the  first  place,  this  principle 
shows  him  how  to  begin  his  composition.  It  answers  for 
him  the  difficult  question,  What  shall  I  say  first  ?  It 
teaches  him  that  he  is  to  start  with  the  event  that  hap- 
pened first,  with  the  object  that  is  nearest  or  most  promi- 
nent, with  the  fact  that  is  known  or  admitted  to  be  true. 
Further,  in  his  effort  to  find  the  best  starting-point  he  is 
likely  to  see  the  various  parts  of  his  subject  in  their 
logical  connection.  Thus  the  application  of  the  principle 
to  the  very  beginning  of  his  composition  will  often  suggest 
a  coherent  plan  for  the  whole. 

The  writer's  first  aim,  then,  should  be  to  arrange  his 
ideas  in  a  logical  order.  After  he  has  found  a  coherent 
arrangement,  he  should  next  take  pains  to  use  certain 
devices  which  will  help  to  make  the  logical  connection  of 
ideas  apparent  to  the  reader. 

The  proper  division  of  a  composition  into  paragraphs  is 
in  itself  a  valuable  aid  to  coherence.  At  the  point  of  divi- 
sion between  two  paragraphs  the  reader  knows  that  the 
writer  has  finished  the  discussion  of  one  main  idea  and  is 
about  to  begin  that  of  another.  Thus  with  every  new 
paragraph  the  course  of  thought  takes,  as  it  were,  a  new 
direction.  The  reader  has  completed  one  stage  of  his  prog- 
ress and  is  on  the  point  of  setting  out  on  another.  Within 
the  paragraph,  his  direction  is  always  straight  ahead,  and 
he  is  not  likely  to  lose  his  way.  When,  however,  he  comes 
to  the  end  of  a  paragraph,  there  is  a  turn  in  the  thought. 
A  new  idea  is  to  be  taken  up,  and  the  writer,  by  starting  a 
new  paragraph,  notifies  his  reader  that  the  thought  is  to 
move  in  a  somewhat  different  direction. 


COHERENCE  79 

The  point  of  division  between  two  paragraphs  is  there- 
fore important ;  for  this  is  the  one  place  where  the  reader 
may  lose  his  way.  It  is  the  writer's  business  to  keep  his 
reader  on  the  right  track.  The  new  direction  which  the 
thought  is  about  to  take  must  be  unmistakable.  At  every 
point  of  division  the  reader  can  glance  back  over  the  course 
already  pursued,  and  can  look  forward  to  that  stage  of  his 
journey  which  lies  immediately  before  him.  Between  the 
two  paragraphs  some  connection  must  be  evident.  Occa- 
sionally the  logical  relation  is  so  close  and  clear  that  no 
connecting  word  or  phrase  is  needed.  For  example,  the 
opening  sentence  of  the  paragraph  that  introduces  the 
Parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son  on  page  69  does  not  contain 
any  connecting  word.  The  word  therefore  in  the  first  sen- 
tence of  the  present  paragraph  shows  how  this  paragraph 
is  connected  with  the  one  that  precedes  it.  In  the  fourth 
paragraph  of  this  chapter  (page  68),  the  phrase  these  laws 
of  association  helps  to  make  the  connection  evident  to  the 
reader  by  referring  him  to  the  foregoing  paragraph.  The 
phrase  these  considerations  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 
paragraph  (page  68)  performs  a  like  service.  In  the  para- 
graph at  the  bottom  of  page  74,  the  clause,  although  it  is  not 
possible  to  lay  down  any  rule  by  which  the  writer  can  see  at 
once  the  logical  07'der  for  his  tlioughts,  makes  the  necessary 
connection  between  two  successive  paragraphs.  Some- 
times a  mere  word  or  phrase  or  clause  does  not  suffice  to 
make  the  relation  evident ;  in  such  cases  it  is  often  neces- 
sary to  link  two  main  ideas  together  by  means  of  a  con- 
necting sentence.  An  example  can  be  found  in  the 
opening  sentence  of  the  paragraph  that  comes  immedi- 
ately after  the  Parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son  (page  71):  Fre- 
quently, however,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  subject,  the 
clement  of  time  docs  not  enter  into  the  composition ;  and 


80  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

consequently  the  chronological  arrangement  cannot  be  used. 
This  connecting  sentence,  it  will  be  noticed,  joins  together 
two  of  the  larger  divisions  of  thought.  The  writer  has 
finished  his  discussion  of  the  chronological  order  used  in 
narrative  writing,  and  is  about  to  apply  the  principle  of 
Coherence  to  other  kinds  of  composition.  He  should  not 
pass  abruptly  from  one  part  of  his  subject  to  another  with- 
out warning  his  reader.  The  transition  at  this  point  can 
best  be  made  by  means  of  a  connecting  sentence.  In  the 
paragraph  at  the  bottom  of  page  JJ,  the  opening  sentence, 
From  the  foregoing  discussion,  etc.,  performs  a  similar  ser- 
vice. In  these  various  ways  the  writer  can  mark  the 
separate  stages  in  the  progress  of  his  thought.  Thus 
connecting  words,  phrases,  clauses,  and  sentences  may  be 
used  for  the  purpose  of  indicating  the  relation  between 
two  main  ideas. 

An  examination  of  almost  any  well-written  book  will 
show  what  pains  a  careful  writer  takes  to  indicate  the 
connection  of  his  ideas  and  the  direction  of  his  discussion. 
The  following  are  the  opening  sentences  of  the  first  nine 
paragraphs  of  Chapter  I,  in  Sellar's  "  Roman  Poets  of  the 
Augustan  Era."  These  sentences  not  only  show  how 
each  paragraph  grows  out  of  the  preceding  one,  but 
also  contain  a  statement  of  the  topic  to  be  discussed  in 
each  paragraph.  The  connecting  expressions  have  been 
italicized :  — 

1"  i .  The  Augustan  Age,  regarded  as  a  critical  epoch  in  the  history  of 
the  world,  extends  from  the  date  of  the  battle  of  Actium,  when  Octa- 
vianus  became  undisputed  master  of  the  world,  to  his  death  in  the  year 

14  A.D. 

Tf  2.  The  whole  of  this  period  was  one  of  great  literary  activity,  espe- 
cially in  the  department  of  poetry. 

%  3.  But  it  is  rather  in  their  political  feelings  and  relations,  and  in 
the  views  of  life  arising  out  of  these,  than  in  the  principles  and  practice 


COHERENCE  8 1 

of  their  art,  that  the  new  poets  are  separated  from,  and  antagonistic  to, 
the  old. 

1  4.  Yet,  while  separated  from  the  literature  of  the  Republic  in  many 
of  its  ideas,  and  in  the  personal  and  political  feelings  on  which  it  is 
founded,  the  poetry  of  the  Augustan  Age  is,  in  form  and  execution,  the 
mature  development  of  the  efforts  of  the  previous  centuries. 

1  5.  But  the  poetry  of  the  new  era  has  also  certain  marked  character- 
istics, .  .  .  which  proclaim  its  affinity  with  great  literary  epochs  of 
other  nations  rather  than  with  any  period  of  the  national  literature. 

1  6.  On  the  whole,  the  closest  parallel,  in  respect  not  so  much  of  the 
substance  and  form  of  composition  as  of  the  circumstances  and  condi- 
tions affecting  the  lives  and  tastes  of  poets  and  men  of  letters,  is  to  be 
sought  in  the  age  of  Louis  XIV  of  France. 

1  7.  And  not  only  the  political  but  the  purely  literary  conditions  of 
the  two  epochs  were  in  some  respects  parallel. 

\  8.  A  further  parallel  might  be  drawn  between  the  material  condi- 
tions of  the  Augustan  Age  and  those  of  the  age  of  Louis  XIV. 

%  9.  But  instead  of  tracing  these  resemblances  farther,  it  is  more  im- 
portant to  observe  that,  though  the  outward  influetices  acting  upon  the 
poets  of  the  two  eras  were  in  many  respects  parallel,  yet  in  form  and 
substance  the  poetry  of  the  Augustan  Age  is  quite  different  from  that 
of  the  age  of  Louis  XIV. 

The  use  of  a  conjunctive  expression  or  of  a  connecting 
sentence  at  the  beginning  of  a  paragraph  is  usually  suffi- 
cient to  show  the  reader  how  the  central  thought  of  the  para- 
graph is  related  to  that  which  precedes  it.  In  short  themes 
it  is  hardly  ever  necessary  to  employ  any  other  means  of 
connection.  In  longer  compositions,  however,  where  the 
writer  is  obliged  to  pass  from  one  main  division  of  his  sub- 
ject to  another,  he  sometimes  finds  it  necessary  to  employ 
transition  paragraphs  and  summaries. 

A  transition  paragraph  bridges  over  the  chasm  that  sep- 
arates two  grand  divisions  of  the  writer's  subject.  In  the 
present  chapter,  for  example,  the  writer  first  explains  the 
principle  of  Coherence,  and  next  discusses  the  devices  used 
for  the  purpose  of   making  the  logical  relation  of  ideas 


82  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

evident  to  the  reader.  These  two  main  divisions  are  con- 
nected by  means  of  a  transition  paragraph  (see  page  78). 
A  transition  paragraph,  it  will  be  noticed,  generally  contains 
two  clauses  or  two  sentences.  The  first  refers  back  to  that 
division  of  the  subject  which  has  just  been  discussed  ;  the 
second  introduces  the  part  which  is  to  be  taken  up  next. 

Between  still  larger  divisions  of  a  subject  it  is  often  well 
to  pause  and  rapidly  review  the  ground  that  has  just  been 
covered.  Thus  Burke,  in  his  "  Speech  on  Conciliation  with 
the  American  Colonies,"  after  discussing  at  length  the  vari- 
ous conditions  that  have  fostered  the  spirit  of  liberty  among 
the  colonists,  pauses  to  make  the  following  summary  before 
passing  on  to  the  next  main  division  of  his  subject :  — 

Then,  sir,  from  these  six  capital  sources  —  of  descent,  of  form  of  gov- 
ernment, of  religion  in  the  northern  provinces,  of  manners  in  the  south- 
ern, of  education,  of  remoteness  of  situation  from  the  first  mover  of 
government  —  from  all  these  causes  a  fierce  spirit  of  liberty  has  grown 
up. 

In  this  book  it  has  been  thought  best  to  place  similar 
summaries  at  the  end  of  the  most  of  the  chapters.  Such 
summaries  perform  for  the  reader  a  twofold  service  :  they 
emphasize  the  ideas  already  presented,  and  they  enable  him 
to  focus  these  ideas,  as  it  were,  at  one  point  before  he 
passes  on  to  another  grand  division  of  the  subject. 

Occasionally  a  single  paragraph  may  be  used  for  the 
double  purpose  of  summarizing  one  part  of  a  subject  and 
of  making  the  transition  to  another.  The  ninth  paragraph 
in  the  chapter  on  "  Unity  and  Selection  "  (at  the  bottom 
of  page  51)  performs  this  double  function. 

Another  device,  helpful  to  both  reader  and  writer,  is 
what  may  be  called  the  outline  paragraph.  At  the  very 
beginning  it  is  often  well  for  the  writer  to  state  the  various 
parts  into  which  he  has  divided  his  subject  and  the  exact 


COHERENCE  83 

order  in  which  he  intends  to  treat  these  divisions.  For 
instance,  in  the  first  paragraph  of  the  theme  entitled 
"  How  to  Write  a  Good  Paragraph "  (page  76)  will  be 
found  a  statement  of  the  outline  which  the  writer  intends 
to  follow.  Again,  in  the  first  paragraph  in  the  chapter  on 
"  Unity  and  Selection "  (page  46),  the  writer  intimates 
that  he  will  discuss,  first,  "  unity  of  purpose,"  next,  "  unity 
of  thought,"  thirdly,  "unity  of  treatment,"  and  lastly, 
"  unity  of  feeling."  The  student  will  find  the  outline  para- 
graph a  valuable  aid  to  coherence,  especially  in  short  ex- 
pository themes.  For  example,  a  student's  theme  on  "  The 
Industries  of  my  Native  Town "  contains  the  following 
introductory  paragraph :  — 

The  principal  industries  of  York,  Pennsylvania,  are  the  curing  and 
packing  of  tobacco,  the  making  of  wall-paper,  the  weaving  of  silk,  and 
the  building  of  agricultural  machinery. 

The  writer,  after  thus  introducing  and  outlining  his  sub- 
ject, discusses  these  four  subdivisions  in  the  order  indicated 
and  devotes  a  paragraph  to  each.  The  student  should 
of  course  remember  that  having  once  indicated  the  order  of 
treatment,  he  should  not  depart  from  it.  Any  change  of 
plan  will  inevitably  confuse  the  reader. 

It  may  be  said  then,  by  way  of  summary,  that  a  writer 
should  show  the  relation  of  his  ideas  by  means  of  a  cohe- 
rent arrangement,  and  that  he  should  use  such  devices  as 
will  make  their  logical  connection  evident  to  the  reader. 
In  the  recital  of  events  or  of  the  successive  stages  in  a 
process,  he  will  naturally  follow  a  chronological  order.  In 
description  he  will  pass  from  the  near  to  the  remote,  or 
from  objects  of  prominence  to  matters  of  detail.  In 
expository  and  argumentative  writing  the  problem  of 
arrangement  is  more  difficult,  because  coherence  is  usually 


84  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

determined,  not  by  the  sequence  of  events  in  the  order  of 
time,  or  by  the  relative  position  and  prominence  of  objects 
in  space,  but  by  an  internal  logical  relation  of  the  ideas 
presented.  This  internal  relation  depends  upon  reasoning 
processes.  In  the  literature  of  thought  it  is  usually  best 
for  the  writer  to  advance  from  the  known  to  the  unknown, 
or  from  that  which  is  admitted  to  that  which  he  wishes  to 
prove.  Every  paragraph  in  a  composition  should  repre- 
sent a  distinct  stage  in  the  progress  of  the  thought.  The 
beginning  of  each  paragraph  should  inform  the  reader  of 
the  new  direction  which  the  thought  is  about  to  take,  and 
should  show  him  how  the  central  idea  of  the  new  para- 
graph grows  out  of  the  preceding  discussion.  The  relation 
between  two  paragraphs  is  usually  shown  by  means  of 
some  connecting  word,  phrase,  clause,  or  sentence.  Tran- 
sition paragraphs  often  bridge  over  the  gap  that  lies  be- 
tween two  grand  divisions  of  a  subject.  Between  still 
larger  parts  of  an  extended  discussion,  summaries  are 
sometimes  used.  Occasionally  a  single  paragraph  per- 
forms the  double  duty  of  summing  up  one  part  and  of 
making  the  transition  to  another.  At  the  very  beginning 
of  a  composition  the  writer  may  often  use  an  outline  para- 
graph to  indicate  the  order  that  he  intends  to  follow.  All 
these  devices  will  help  him  to  show  the  logical  connection 
of  his  ideas. 

EXERCISES 

I.  Write  a  theme  on  one  of  the  subjects  selected  by  your  instructor 
from  the  list  of  twenty  theme-subjects  which  you  prepared  in  Exercise 
IV,  page  45. 

II.  Apply  the  principle  of  Coherence  to  the  theme  "Some  Places 
of  Interest  near  my  Home,"  quoted  under  Exercise  III,  page  63.  What 
faults  are  apparent  ?     How  may  they  be  removed  ? 


COHERENCE  85 

III.  In  like  manner  apply  the  principle  of  Coherence  to  the  follow- 
ing themes.  Point  out  the  faults,  and  show  how  they  may  be  cor- 
rected :  — 

1.    How  Flour  is  Made 

Flour  is  made  from  the  seeds  of  wheat.  The  two  chief  processes  of 
making  flour  are  the  "  stone  process  "  and  the  "  roller  process." 

The  wheat  to-  be  ground  into  flour  by  the  stone  system  is  first  placed 
in  a  large  box  shaped  like  the  inverted  frustrum  of  a  pyramid.  The 
lower  base  is  covered  with  a  lid  which  gives  way  slightly  at  every  revo- 
lution of  the  upper  stone  immediately  below  to  let  the  wheat  from  the 
hopper  into  the  circular  cylinder  hewn  out  of  the  upper  stone. 

The  stones,  two  in  number,  are  cellular  silicious  stones,  the  surfaces 
of  which  are  radically  grooved,  and  in  these  grooves  the  powdered 
material  collects.  The  stones  are  about  five  feet  in  diameter  and  one 
foot  thick.  In  grinding,  the  lower  stone  remains  stationary,  while  the 
upper  one  moves  at  a  lively  rate. 

The  wheat  which  falls  into  the  circular  cylinder  of  the  upper  stone 
seeks  its  way  into  the  grooves  between  the  two  stones  and  is  ground 
into  powder  by  the  weight  of  the  upper  revolving  stone.  The  pow- 
dered wheat  is  then  carried  by  elevators  into  the  sifter.  The  sifter  is  a 
long  revolving  cylinder,  about  twenty-five  feet  long  and  three  feet  in 
diameter,  covered  with  a  special  kind  of  silk.  The  powdered  grain  is 
here  separated.  The  finer  part,  or  flour,  falls  through  the  small  holes  in 
the  silk,  while  the  bran  does  not  and  comes  out  at  the  end  of  the  sifter. 

The  flour  is  now  carried  by  elevators  to  the'  packing-room,  where  it 
is  packed  in  sacks  ready  to  be  shipped  to  the  consumer. 

Wheat  ground  into  flour  by  the  roller  system  goes  through  a  very 
different  process.  The  wheat,  instead  of  being  placed  in  a  hopper 
above  the  rolls,  is  brought  on  to  the  rolls  by  the  elevators,  and  instead 
of  being  ground  into  powder  by  two  stones,  is  crushed  between  two 
rollers  made  of  steel.  The  ground  wheat  is  then  taken  through  the 
sifter,  where  the  flour  is  separated  from  the  bran  in  an  entirely  differ- 
ent way  from  the  way  in  which  it  is  separated  in  the  stone  system. 

The  flour  is  now  elevated  to  the  packing-room,  where  it  is  packed  in 
bags  by  machinery,  and  is  then  ready  for  market. 

The  flour  made  by  the  stone  system  is  commercially  inferior  to  that 
made  by  the  improved  roller  system ;  nevertheless,  it  is  believed  by 
some  people  to  be  more  wholesome. 


86  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 


2.   Oriole  Cave 

One  of  the  curiosities  of  the  region  in  which  I  live  is  a  cave.  Its 
discovery  was  strange  and  unexpected.  The  possessor  of  some  prop- 
erty was  at  one  time  ploughing  in  the  field  when  his  horse  suddenly  sank 
a  considerable  distance  into  the  ground.  The  man  investigated  this 
peculiar  happening,  and  under  the  place  where  the  horse  sank  he  found 
a  cave. 

This  cave  has  not  attracted  much  attention,  for,  owing  to  a  lack  of 
necessary  capital,  the  owner  did  not  advertise  or  improve  the  cave,  and 
did  not  make  its  surroundings  attractive.  For  the  same  reason  he  did 
not  have  it  fully  explored,  and  its  extent  is  still  undetermined.  The 
cave  is  situated  in  a  narrow  valley,  and  is  at  a  moderately  high 
altitude. 

There  is  a  hole  at  which  one  enters,  and  after  going  a  short  distance 
down  an  incline,  he  finds  himself  in  the  hollow  of  the  ground.  Just 
here,  as  a  base  on  which  to  stand,  is  a  small  area.  Through  the  cavern 
flows  a  narrow,  rippling  stream  of  cool,  fresh  water,  which,  moving 
boldly  onward,  makes  an  abrupt  turn  at  the  entrance  of  the  cave.  The 
entrance  does  not  present  a  very  alluring  aspect,  but  when  you  are  once 
inside,  the  walls,  so  picturesquely  formed  by  nature,  and  the  sparkling 
waters  make  a  spectacle  as  grand  as  the  approach  to  it  is  repelling. 

The  bottom  of  the  cave  is  of  solid  limestone,  a  part  of  which  forms 
the  bed  of  the  stream.  The  walls,  likewise  composed  of  limestone,  are, 
on  an  average,  about  fifteen  feet  high  to  the  level  of  the  water,  and  are 
not  more  than  twenty  feet  from  there  to  the  top  of  the  cave.  These 
walls  extend  for  perhaps  half  a  mile,  where  the  stream  at  last  finds  an 
outlet  into  the  Susquehanna  River. 

Certain  features  of  the  cave  are  such  that  they  will  well  repay  the 
visitor.  While  he  is  inside,  the  air,  on  account  of  its  being  surrounded 
by  limestone  walls  and  cooled  by  the  fresh,  running  brook,  to  an  in- 
credible degree  refreshes  and  invigorates  one.  Then  a  person  finds 
other  satisfaction  and  delight  in  imbibing  the  cool  draughts  of  the 
superior  mountain  water. 

Still  another  feature  is  the  ride  under  the  ground  in  a  rowboat.  For 
all  these  reasons,  one  of  the  most  interesting  peculiarities  of  my  native 
region  is  Oriole  Cave. 

IV.    Show  how  Coherence  is  secured  in  the  following  passage :  — 


COHERENCE  87 


The  Law  of  Simplicity  l 

The  first  obligation  of  Simplicity  is  that  of  using  the  simplest  means 
to  secure  the  fullest  effect.  But  although  the  mind  instinctively  rejects 
all  needless  complexity,  we  shall  greatly  err  if  we  fail  to  recognize  the 
fact  that  what  the  mind  recoils  from  is  not  the  complexity,  but  the  need- 
lessness.  When  two  men  are  set  to  the  work  of  one,  there  is  a  waste 
of  means ;  when  two  phrases  are  used  to  express  one  meaning  twice, 
there  is  a  waste  of  power ;  when  incidents  are  multiplied  and  illustra- 
tions crowded  without  increase  of  illumination,  there  is  prodigality 
which  only  the  vulgar  can  mistake  for  opulence. 

Simplicity  is  a  relative  term.  If  in  sketching  the  head  of' a  man  the 
artist  wishes  only  to  convey  the  general  characteristics  of  that  head,  the 
fewest  touches  show  the  greatest  power,  selecting  as  they  do  only  those 
details  which  carry  with  them  characteristic  significance.  The  means 
are  simple,  as  the  effect  is  simple.  But  if,  besides  the  general  charac- 
teristics, he  wishes  to  convey  the  modelling  of  the  forms,  the  play  of 
light  and  shade,  the  textures,  and  the  very  complex  effect  of  a  human 
head,  he  must  use  more  complex  means.  The  simplicity  which  was 
adequate  in  the  one  case  becomes  totally  inadequate  in  the  other. 

Obvious  as  this  is,  it  has  not  been  sufficiently  present  to  the  mind  of 
critics  who  have  called  for  plain,  familiar,  and  concrete  diction,  as  if 
that  alone  could  claim  to  be  simple ;  who  have  demanded  a  style  un- 
adorned by  the  artifices  of  involution,  cadence,  imagery,  and  epigram, 
as  if  Simplicity  were  incompatible  with  these  ;  and  have  praised  meagre- 
ness,  mistaking  it  for  Simplicity.  Saxon  words  are  words  which  in  their 
homeliness  have  deep-seated  power,  and  in  some  places  they  are  the 
simplest  because  the  most  powerful  words  we  can  employ ;  but  their 
very  homeliness  excludes  them  from  certain  places  where  their  very 
power  of  suggestion  is  a  disturbance  of  the  general  effect.  The  selec- 
tive instinct  of  the  artist  tells  him  when  his  language  should  be  homely, 
and  when  it  should  be  more  elevated ;  and  it  is  precisely  in  the  imper- 
ceptible blending  of  the  plain  with  the  ornate  that  a  great  writer  is  dis- 

iFrom  George  Henry  Lewes's  "The  Principles  of  Success  in  Literature." 
Every  student  of  English  Composition  can  read  this  book  with  profit.  "  It  is  just 
the  work  to  go  into  the  hands  of  that  hope  and  despair  of  the  teacher  of  Rhetoric, 
—  the  callow  young  man  with  a  sneaking  ambition  for  literature,  much  sentiment, 
and  a  decided  relish  for  rhetorical  decoration."  The  best  edition  is  the  one  edited 
by  Professor  Fred  N.  Scott  and  published  by  Allyn  and  Bacon. 


88  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

tinguished.  He  uses  the  simplest  phrases  without  triviality,  and  the 
grandest  without  a  suggestion  of  grandiloquence- 
Simplicity  of  style  will  therefore  be  understood  as  meaning  absence 
of  needless  superfluity.  Its  plainness  is  never  meagreness,  but  unity 
Obedient  to  the  primary  impulse  of  adequate  expression,  the  style  of  a 
complex  subject  should  be  complex ;  of  a  technical  subject,  technical ; 
of  an  abstract  subject,  abstract ;  of  a  familiar  subject,  familiar ;  of  a  pic- 
torial subject,  picturesque.  The  structure  of  the  "Antigone"  is  sim- 
ple ;  but  so  also  is  the  structure  of  "  Othello,"  though  it  contains  many 
more  elements ;  the  simplicity  of  both  lies  in  their  fulness  without 
superfluity. 

Whatever  is  outside  the  purpose  or  the  feeling  of  a  scene,  a  speech, 
a  sentence,  or  a  phrase,  whatever  may  be  omitted  without  sacrifice  of 
effect,  is  a  sin  against  this  law.  I  do  not  say  that  the  incident,  descrip- 
tion, or  dialogue,  which  may  be  omitted  without  injury  to  the  unity  of 
the  work,  is  necessarily  a  sin  against  art ;  still  less  that,  even  when 
acknowledged  as  a  sin,  it  may  not  sometimes  be  condoned  by  its  suc- 
cess. The  law  of  Simplicity  is  not  the  only  law  of  art ;  and,  moreover, 
audiences  are,  unhappily,  so  little  accustomed  to  judge  works  as  wholes, 
and  so  ready  to  seize  upon  any  detail  that  pleases  them,  no  matter  how 
incongruously  the  detail  may  be  placed,  that  a  felicitous  fault  will  capti- 
vate applause,  let  critics  shake  reproving  heads  as  they  may.  Never- 
theless the  law  of  Simplicity  remains  unshaken,  and  ought  only  to  give 
way  to  the  pressure  of  the  law  of  Variety. 


CHAPTER   IX 
PROPORTION   AND   EMPHASIS 

The  principle  of  Proportion  is  so  broad  that  it  applies  to 
most  arts.  For  instance,  in  drawing,  in  sculpture,  and  in 
architecture,  a  nice  sense  of  proportion  is  essential  to  any- 
thing like  successful  workmanship.  The  artist  must  be 
careful  not  to  make  any  part  either  too  large  or  too  small. 
He  must  take  into  account  the  scope  of  his  work  as  a  whole 
and  the  relative  size  of  the  various  parts.  He  must  judge 
accurately  the  exact  amount  of  room  which  each  part  ought 
to  occupy.  If  he  makes  some  parts  too  large  and  others 
too  small,  he  will  spoil  the  symmetry  of  the  whole.  His 
work  will  then  appear  exaggerated,  deformed,  distorted, 
because  certain  parts  are  out  of  proportion. 

The  writer  must  apply  the  same  principle  to  his  work. 
The  composition  that  he  intends  to  write  contains  a  num- 
ber of  parts  or  subdivisions.  These  parts  are  not  all  of 
equal  importance ;  therefore  they  should  not  all  receive 
the  same  amount  of  space.  The  more  important  ideas 
should  be  discussed  at  length ;  the  less  important  should 
be  passed  over  quickly.  The  writer  should  amplify  those 
thoughts  that  are  valuable  and  weighty.  To  ideas  that  are 
unimportant  he  should  not  give  a  disproportionate  amount 
of  room.  To  each  part  of  his  composition  he  should  assign 
an  amount  of  space  proportionate  to  its  importance.  To  do 
this  he  must  examine  all  his  thoughts  on  a  given  subject 
with  a  view  to  determining  which  are  the  most  significant. 

89 


90  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

He  must  take  into  account  the  entire  amount  of  space  at 
his  disposal,  and  he  must  consider  the  relative  importance 
of  the  various  subdivisions  of  his  subject.  He  should  then 
so  plan  his  work  as  to  give  the  greater  amount  of  space  to 
the  more  important  ideas.  Thus  the  relative  value  of  each 
idea  will  determine  how  large  a  share  of  the  whole  space  it 
shall  occupy.  The  principle  of  Proportion,  then,  concerns 
itself  with  the  relative  amount  of  space  which  should  be 
given  to  the  different  parts  of  a  composition. 

If  a  writer  is  to  make  a  practical  application  of  this 
principle,  he  must  have  a  definite  notion  of  the  scope  of 
his  work.  He  cannot  determine  the  relative  amount  of 
space  which  each  part  of  his  discussion  should  receive 
unless  he  knows  how  much  space  the  whole  composition  is 
to  occupy.  The  length  of  his  composition,  however,  very 
rarely  gives  him  much  anxious  thought :  the  amount  of 
space  which  he  may  fill  is  generally  determined  for  him. 
The  writers  who  contribute  to  newspapers  and  magazines 
must  usually  keep  their  articles  within  certain  prescribed 
space  limits.  Editors  generally  inform  their  contributors 
that  stories  or  articles  should  cover  a  certain  number  of 
pages,  or  contain  a  certain  number  of  words.  Even  the 
author  who  is  preparing  to  write  a  book  usually  plans  his 
work  on  a  certain  scale  :  he  knows,  before  he  puts  pen  to 
paper,  the  approximate  number  of  pages  which  his  work 
will  cover.  In  like  manner,  a  limit  is  generally  set  to  the 
length  of  a  student's  theme  :  he  may  be  asked  to  write  a 
single  paragraph  containing  about  one  hundred  and  fifty 
words ;  or  perhaps  a  theme  containing  about  four  hundred 
words ;  or  occasionally  a  longer  essay  containing  a  thou- 
sand words.  Thus  his  space,  like  that  of  professional 
writers,  is  definitely  limited.  This  limitation  is  both  nec- 
essary and  useful.     As  soon  as  the  student   knows  how 


PROPORTION   AND   EMPHASIS  91 

much  space  is  at  his  disposal,  he  can  decide  how  much 
room  he  can  give  to  each  part  of  his  composition. 

The  writer,  in  applying  the  principle  of  Proportion, 
must  use  his  judgment.  He  is  here  thrown  entirely  upon 
his  own  resources.  He  alone  can  determine  how  much 
space  each  thought  should  receive.  He  should  be  especially 
on  his  guard  against  treating  this  principle  as  though 
it  were  an  inflexible  rule.  At  the  outset  he  knows  two 
things,  —  the  amount  of  space  that  is  allotted  to  him  and 
the  ideas  that  he  has  selected.  He  starts  with  a  clearly 
denned  subject  and  with  a  definite  purpose  in  writing ; 
obviously,  the  end  that  he  has  in  view  will  not  only 
affect  his  selection  of  ideas,  but  will  also  influence  him  in 
the  division  of  his  space.  Sometimes  an  important  thought 
may  require  only  a  relatively  small  amount  of  space  be- 
cause it  is  familiar  or  easily  understood.  Such  a  thought 
may  be  stated  with  special  emphasis,  or  it  may  be  made  to 
occupy  a  prominent  place  in  the  composition.  Occasionally 
a  writer  may  be  led  to  give  considerable  space  to  some 
idea  simply  because  is  is  difficult  and  requires  extended 
explanation  and  illustration.  Again,  if  a  man  is  writing 
for  a  special  class  of  readers,  this  fact  may  induce  him 
to  give  greater  space  to  certain  thoughts.  However,  in- 
asmuch as  he  will  generally  write  for  the  average  reader, 
the  intrinsic  value  of  the  ideas  selected  will,  in  most 
cases,  be  the  only  thing  that  requires  consideration.  To 
the  amplification  of  one  part  of  his  composition  it  may 
be  necessary  to  devote  a  long  paragraph.  For  another 
idea,  which  is  clearly  of  less  value,  only  half  as  much 
space  may  be  needed.  Some  thought  of  slight  signifi- 
cance may  require  only  a  single  short  sentence.  As 
soon  as  the  writer  has  carefully  weighed  his  ideas  and 
has  determined  their  relative  importance,  he  can  apportion 


92  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

to  each  the  amount  of  space  which  it  ought  to  occupy. 
He  will  generally  find  it  best  to  decide  on  the  approximate 
number  of  words  that  are  necessary  to  the  adequate 
treatment  of  each  subdivision  of  his  subject.  He  will 
thus  have  to  treat  each  composition  as  a  separate  problem 
in  proportion;  and  in  each  instance  he  will  have  to  make 
a  judicious  apportionment  of  his  limited  space. 

The  principle  of  Proportion  is  violated  whenever  one 
part  of  a  composition  occupies  too  much  space  and  another 
part  too  little.  In  the  work  of  a  careless  writer  one  idea 
will  sometimes  receive  exhaustive  treatment;  another  idea, 
of  eq-ual  or  greater  importance,  will  be  dismissed  with  a 
sentence  or  two.  The  writer  may  chance  to  have  an  abun- 
dance of  good  material  bearing  upon  one  part  of  his  sub- 
ject ;  with  this  part  he  happens  to  be  most  familiar  ;  his 
thoughts  lie,  as  it  were,  on  the  surface ;  they  come  to  mind 
readily,  and  he  jots  them  down  rapidly.  He  may  thus  be 
tempted  to  treat  one  part  of  his  composition  with  favorit- 
ism, and  to  discuss  it  at  unusual  length.  In  this  way, 
before  he  comes  to  the  most  important  division  of  his  sub- 
ject, he  has  almost  unconsciously  used  up  the  greater  part 
of  his  space ;  and  the  idea  that  should  have  received  the 
most  room  is  crowded  into  a  corner.  Again,  Proportion  is 
sometimes  violated  by  the  beginner  because  he  finds  it 
difficult  to  amplify  one  of  his  main  ideas.  Naturally  averse 
to  the  hard  task  of  thinking,  he  hurries  on  to  something 
easier.  Thus  he  slights  the  very  thought  that  he  ought  to 
expand,  and  wastes  his  space  on  trivial  or  obvious  matters 
that  need  no  extended  discussion.  Frequently  the  novice 
writes  without  attempting  to  apportion  his  space.  He 
imagines  that  he  has  written  a  composition  when  he  has 
produced  the  required  number  of  words.  With  slight 
regard   for  Unity  and    Coherence,  and  with   no   thought 


PROPORTION   AND   EMPHASIS  93 

whatever  of  Proportion,  he  sets  Sown  anything  that  his 
subject  happens  to  suggest.  When  he  has  written  words 
enough,  he  stops  short:  his  composition  is  "finished."  A 
theme  written  in  this  fashion  is  about  as  aimless  and  inef- 
fective as  the  speech  of  a  man  who  is  unexpectedly  called 
upon  to  "  make  a  few  remarks."  Gross  violations  of  Pro- 
portion, then;  are  usually  due  either  to  thoughtlessness  or 
to  laziness. 

A  single  example  will  be  enough  to  show  how  the  care- 
less writer  is  liable  to  disregard  this  principle.  A  student 
chose  for  his  subject,  "  The  Life  and  Work  of  the  Country 
Physician."  His  theme  was  to  contain  about  four  hundred 
words.  He  planned  to  write  three  paragraphs  on  the 
following  topics:  (i)  The  duties  and  responsibilities  of 
the  country  physician;  (2)  The  hardships  of  his  life;  (3) 
His  compensations.  This  writer  proportioned  his  space  in 
the  following  manner :  — 

1  1.  The  duties  which  a  country  physician  has  to  perform  are  nu- 
merous.    Etc.     (One  hundred  and  sixty  words.) 

%  2.  In  the  performance  of  his  professional  duties  he  is  obliged  to 
expose  himself  to  many  dangers  and  to  endure  many  hardships.  Etc. 
(Two  hundred  and  ten  words.) 

T  3.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  in  compensation  for  his  arduous 
work  and  for  the  dangers  and  the  hardships  that  he  daily  meets,  the 
country  physician  generally  makes  a  fairly  comfortable  living.  (Thirty- 
two  words.) 

The  writer  of  this  theme  no  doubt  found  it  easy  to  dis- 
cuss the  first  two  topics.  For  the  second  he  seems  to  have 
had  a  superabundance  of  material.  Hence  he  gives  nearly 
all  his  space  to  the  first  two  paragraphs.  Now  the  com- 
pensations that  a  country  physician  receives  stand  as  a 
sort  of  offset  to  the  work  that  he  does  and  the  hardships 
that  he  endures.     Surely  money  is  not  his  only  reward, 


94  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

though  the  writer  seems  to  think  so ;  the  physician  receives 
other  compensations,  less  gross  and  material,  but  not  less 
real.  Certainly,  then,  this  topic  is  by  no  means  the  least 
important  of  the  three;  nor  does  the  second  paragraph 
deserve  more  space  than  the  first  and  third  together  receive. 
This  student,  it  may  be  supposed,  found  it  harder  to  write 
on  the  third  topic  than  on  the  other  two ;  and  he  doubtless 
felt  a  sense  of  relief  when  he  discovered  that  he  had  room 
for  only  one  more  sentence.  The  last  sentence  does  not 
complete  the  theme ;  it  seems  rather  to  have  been  added  as 
an  afterthought.  It  is  not  unfair  to  attribute  this  writer's 
violation  of  Proportion  to  thoughtlessness  and  laziness. 
His  theme  is  faulty  because  he  has  failed  to  apportion  his 
space  with  a  view  to  economy  and  effectiveness. 

The  principle  of  Proportion,  if  judiciously  applied,  will 
help  the  writer  both  to  economize  his  space  and  to  give  due 
prominence  to  his  main  ideas.  Good  proportion  is  a  valu- 
able aid  to  effectiveness.  By  this  means  the  writer  can 
make  the  most  of  his  limited  space ;  and  he  can  also  help 
the  reader  to  see  the  relative  value  of  the  different  ideas 
presented.  Careful  attention  to  Proportion,  however,  is 
not  the  only  means  that  the  writer  may  use  to  give  promi- 
nence to  important  thoughts.  Closely  related  to  the  prin- 
ciple of  Proportion  is  another  valuable  aid  to  effectiveness, 
— the  principle  of  Emphasis. 

According  to  this  principle  important  ideas  should  be 
put  in  prominent  positions.  The  two  most  important 
places  in  a  composition  are  the  beginning  and  the  end. 
An  idea  placed  at  either  of  these  two  points  is  more  likely 
to  attract  the  reader's  attention  than  an  idea  placed  in  the 
body  of  a  composition.  To  show  why  the  beginning  and  the 
end  are  the  most  prominent  positions,  a  word  of  explanation 
may  be  necessary. 


PROPORTION   AND   EMPHASIS  95 

The  beginning  is  important  because  it  is  the  first  thing 
that  meets  the  eye.  Nothing  comes  before  it.  When  one 
takes  up  a  book  or  a  magazine  article,  his  attention  is  gen- 
erally fresh  and  alert ;  his  mind  is  receptive ;  he  is  ready 
to  learn  what  the  wiiter  has  to  say ;  he  is  eager  to  receive 
something  in  the*  way  of  entertainment  or  information. 
The  opening  sentences  give  him  his  first  impressions.  If 
the  first  few  lines  engage  his  attention  and  stimulate  his 
interest,  he  is  likely  to  read  farther.  For  this  reason  the 
beginning  is  a  vantage-point  for  the  writer.  If  he  can 
captivate  his  reader's  interest  at  the  start  and  can  make 
good  his  promise  of  better  things  to  come,  his  story  or 
article  will  not  be  laid  aside  until  it  is  finished.  As  the 
reader  proceeds,  the  keen  edge  of  his  attention  may  be 
dulled  a  little  by  long  use.  As  he  nears  the  end,  however, 
his  interest  is  again  aroused :  he  wants  to  get  the  writer's 
last  words,  to  know  the  conclusion  of  the  whole  matter. 
What  he  reads  last  is  likely  to  remain  with  him,  for  nothing 
comes  after  it.  The  end,  then,  is  another  point  of  van- 
tage ;  and  the  writer  who  wishes  to  leave  a  lasting  impres- 
sion will  place  at  the  end  of  his  composition  some  thought 
that  deserves  special  emphasis. 

Since  the  opening  sentences  of  a  composition  occupy  an 
emphatic  position,  it  is  worth  while  to  inquire  what  consti- 
tutes a  good  beginning.  Generally  speaking,  directness 
and  brevity  are  qualities  of  paramount  importance.  The 
very  first  words  should,  if  possible,  be  words  of  weight; 
and  they  should  lead  directly  to  the  subject.  The  common 
fault  of  writing  irrelevant  introductions  has  already  been 
pointed  out.  (See  page  57.)  Roundabout  and  lengthy  in- 
troductions, which  do  not  come  directly  to  the  matter  under 
discussion,  are  perhaps  still  more  frequent  in  the  work  of 
unpractised  writers.      They  not  only  use  up  the  writer's 


96  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

space,  but  they  weary  the  reader's  patience  and  destroy 
his  interest.  Diffuseness  at  the  very  beginning  of  a  com- 
position promises  nothing  but  tediousness,  and  is  fatal  to 
emphasis.  The  value  of  directness  and  brevity  in  the 
opening  sentences  is  well  exemplified  in  the  three  compo- 
sitions quoted  in  the  preceding  chapter :  — 

i.   The  Prodigal  Son 

A  certain  man  had  two  sons.  And  the  younger  of  them  said  to  his 
father,  "Father,  give  me  the  portion  of  goods  that  falleth  to  me."  And 
he  divided  unto  them  his  living.     (See  page  70.) 

2.   The  Yosemite  Valley 

The  one  distinguishing  feature  of  the  Yosemite  is  a  double  wall  of 
perpendicular  granite,  rising  from  half  a  mile  to  a  mile  in  height,  and 
enclosing  a  valley  about  half  a  mile  in  average  width,  and  from  six  to 
eight  miles  in  length.  It  is  a  chasm,  rather  than  a  valley,  in  mountains 
of  solid  rock.     (See  page  72.) 

3.   How  to  Write  a  Good  Paragraph 

A  paragraph  is  a  series  of  connected  thoughts  which  constitute  the 
development  of  a  single  topic.  In  every  paragraph  one  definite  idea, 
clearly  and  forcibly  expressed,  should  be  immediately  evident  to  the 
reader.  In  this  definition  are  implied  all  the  essentials  of  a  good  para- 
graph. First,  the  paragraph  is  the  development  of  a  single  idea,  and 
therefore  it  must  be  a  unit.  Secondly,  it  is  a  series  of  connected 
thoughts,  and  hence  it  must  possess  Coherence.  Thirdly,  its  main  idea 
should  be  made  to  stand  out  prominently ;  the  most  important  points 
in  the  paragraph  should  give  emphatic  expression  to  the  central  thought. 
A  paragraph,  then,  may  be  regarded  as  a  small  theme,  and  it  is  con- 
sequently governed  by  the  same  principles  that  govern  the  whole  com- 
position.    (See  page  76.) 

These  are  examples  of  good  beginnings  for  short  composi- 
tions. With  commendable  brevity  and  directness  they  go 
straight  to  the  point.  They  perform  two  important  ser- 
vices :  (1)  at  the  very  outset  they  catch  the  reader's  atten- 


PROPORTION   AND   EMPHASIS  97 

tion;  and  (2)  they  get  the  composition  started  at  once, 
without  wasting  words  on  a  formal  introduction  and  with- 
out giving  an  impression  of  abruptness.  It  will  be  noticed, 
further,  that  each  of  these  beginnings  not  only  gets  the 
theme  under  way,  but  also  makes  a  substantial  contribu- 
tion to  the  development  of  the  subject. 

The  following  additional  examples  of  good  beginnings 
have  been  taken  from  students'  themes  :  — 

1.   How  Bricks  are  Made 

The  first  requisite  in  the  making  of  bricks  is  to  have  the  clay  in  such 
condition  that  it  may  readily  be  moulded  into  shape.     Etc. 

2.  An  Afternoon's  Clamming 

When  I  was  at  N last  summer,  a  friend  asked  me  one  day  to 

go  "  quahaugging  "  with  him.  Having  lived  at  the  seashore  only  a  few 
days,  I  did  not  know  what  he  meant.  He  explained  that  the  "  quahaug  " 
was  a  kind  of  clam  found  in  the  bed  of  creeks  near  the  ocean.  Being 
eager  for  every  new  experience,  I  readily  consented  to  go. 

We  put  on  our  bathing-suits  and  rowed  up  a  little  creek  that  flowed 
through  the  salt  marshes.     Etc. 

3.  The  Influence  of  Athletics  in  a  High  School 

Are  athletics  a  benefit  to  a  high  school  ?  This  question  has  received 
much  attention  from  many  broad-minded  men,  and  still  their  opinions 
differ  widely.  Even  high  school  principals  do  not  agree  on  this  sub- 
ject. The  college-bred  teacher  takes  the  affirmative ;  and  with  equal 
force  and  insistence  some  "  old  fogy  "  principal,  who  has  already  given 
the  best  years  of  his  life  to  school  work,  sees  in  athletics  the  ruin  of  his 
school.  Some  teachers  give  the  matter  no  attention  whatever,  but  their 
indifference  is  more  than  offset  by  the  enthusiastic  spirit  of  the  students, 
who  are  unanimously  in  favor  of  high  school  athletics.  It  is  proper, 
then,  that  we  should  put  aside  all  prejudiced  and  personal  opinions, 
and  try  to  take  as  broad  a  view  of  the  subject  as  we  can,     Etc. 


98  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

With  the  six  examples  of  good  beginnings  which  have 
just  been  cited,  the  stuclent  should  contrast  the  following 
lengthy,  irrelevant,  and  roundabout  "  introduction  "  :  — 


My  Largest  Bass 

The  black  bass  has  of  late  years  become  very  plentiful  in  many  of 
the  streams  and  lakes  of  the  northern  states.  At  one  time  he  was  con- 
sidered to  be  the  king  of  the  smaller  game  fishes,  and  for  several  years 
state  governments  and  angling  associations  continued  to  stock  all  fish- 
ing waters  with  bass  fry.  It  was.  soon  discovered  that  the  bass  was 
fierce  and  voracious,  that  he  multiplied  rapidly,  and  that  he  soon  de- 
populated the  streams  of  all  other  desirable  fish.  There  are  to-day 
many  fishermen  who  would  gladly  exterminate  the  bass  from  the  trout 
and  pike  waters,  but  to  attempt  it  would  be  like  trying  to  wage  war 
against  flies. 

There  is  no  question,  however,  about  the  gameness  of  the  bass.  He 
fights  to  the  last  minute;  he  jumps  now  and  then  from  the  water  in  a 
way  to  bring  a  fisherman's  heart  into  his  mouth  ;  and  if  he  is  large,  he 
is  sure  to  give  one  an  exciting  quarter  of  an  hour  before  he  comes  up 
to  the  boat-side  for  the  gaff.  There  is,  too,  an  element  of  uncertainty 
about  the  feeding  of  the  bass  that  adds  to  his  popularity  as  a  game 
fish.  He  is  exceedingly  fastidious.  To-day  he  will  bite  greedily  at  a 
certain  bait,  and  to-morrow  he  will  not  even  look  at  it.  The  first  ques- 
tion that  one  bass  fisherman  asks  of  another  is,  "What  are  they  biting 
to-day  ?  n  To  be  successful  day  after  day  requires  extensive  experi- 
ence, and  on  this  account  there  is  what  is  called  a  "  bass  cult  "  among 
fishermen. 

Last  year  I  camped  for  ten  days  on  Mooselookmaguntic  Lake. 
Our  party  took  canoes  to  the  head  of  the  Black  stream,  and  then 
"  toted "  our  outfit  over  the  divide.  We  reached  the  borders  of  the 
lake  just  at  nightfall.  The  air  was  thick  with  mosquitoes,  and  the 
black  flies  found  the  places  that  the  mosquitoes  could  not  get  at.  To 
crown  all  a  thunder-storm  was  coming  up.  [Here  follows  an  account 
of  the  storm  and  the  miseries  of  the  ensuing  night.] 

The  next  morning,  however,  dawned  clear  and  bright.  We  got  an 
early  breakfast  and  were  ready  for  our  fishing  by  seven  o'clock.  I  was 
fishing  with  a  ten-ounce  rod  and  was  using  a  helgramite.     In  less  than 


PROPORTION   AND   EMPHASIS  99 

ten  minutes  from  the  time  I  first  cast  out  I  had  hooked  my  fish.     Then 
followed  twenty  minutes  that  I  shall  never  forget.     Etc. 

The  faults  of  such  a  beginning  are  readily  apparent. 
The  writer  cautiously  beats  about  the  bush.  He  seems  to 
be  on  his  guard  against  coming  upon  his  subject  too  sud- 
denly, and  approaches  it  as  though  he  were  stalking  game. 
The  theme  begins  as  if  it  were  to  be  a  treatise  on  "  The 
Black  Bass."  The  second  paragraph  has  for  its  subject 
"  The  Black  Bass  as  a  Game  Fish."  In  the  third  para- 
graph the  subject  changes  again.  The  writer  sets  out  to 
give  an  account  of  his  camping  experience  in  the  Maine 
woods.  It  is  not  until  the  fourth  paragraph  is  reached 
that  he  begins  to  treat  of  his  subject.  Thus  he  improvi- 
dently  devotes  almost  half  of  his  space  to  an  "  introduc- 
tion "  that  is  worse  than  useless.  Such  a  beginning 
utterly  disregards  the  principles  of  Proportion  and  Empha- 
sis, to  say  nothing  of  Unity. 

In  longer  compositions,  such  as  magazine  articles  and 
books,  formal  introductions  often  perform  a  valuable  ser- 
vice in  giving  the  writer  an  opportunity  to  set  forth  his 
purpose,  his  point  of  view,  or  his  method  of  treatment. 
The  first  five  paragraphs  of  Macaulay's  "  History  of  Eng- 
land "  and  the  first  thirteen  paragraphs  of  Burke's  "  Speech 
on  Conciliation  with  the  American  Colonies"  may  be  cited 
as  excellent  examples  of  such  formal  introductions.  Huxley 
prefaces  his  lecture  "  On  the  Study  of  Biology  "  with  the 
following  introductory  paragraph  :  — 

It  is  my  duty  to-night  to  speak  about  the  study  of  biology ;  and 
while  it  may  be  that  there  are  many  of  my  audience  who  are  quite 
familiar  with  that  study,  yet  as  a  lecturer  of  some  standing,  it  would, 
I  know  by  experience,  be  very  bad  policy  on  my  part  to  suppose  such 
to  be  extensively  the  case.  On  the  contrary,  I  must  imagine  that  there 
are  many  of  you  who  would  like  to  know  what  biology  is ;  that  there 


IOO  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

are  others  who  have  that  amount  of  information,  but  would  nevertheless 
gladly  hear  why  it  should  be  worth  their  while  to  study  biology ;  and 
yet  others,  again,  to  whom  these  points  are  clear,  but  who  desire 
to  learn  how  they  had  best  study  it,  and,  finally,  when  they  had  best 
study  it.  I  shall  therefore  address  myself  to  the  endeavor  to  give  you 
some  answer  to  these  four  questions :  what  biology  is ;  why  it  should 
be  studied ;  how  it  should  be  studied ;  and  when  it  should  be 
studied. 

This  passage  is  a  good  illustration  of  the  kind  of  introduc- 
tion which  a  speaker  or  a  writer  often  finds  necessary  in 
the  composition  of  an  elaborate  argument  or  an  extended 
exposition.  The  student,  however,  will  rarely  need  any 
formal  or  lengthy  introduction  for  his  brief  themes. 

How  to  end  a  theme  is,  with  most  young  writers,  almost 
as  perplexing  a  question  as  how  to  begin.  It  is  natural 
for  one  to  feel  that  the  end  of  a  composition  should  give 
the  reader  a  sense  of  its  completeness.  The  desire  to 
avoid  an  abrupt  ending  no  doubt  leads  many  a  young 
writer  to  devise  a  needlessly  long  and  formal  conclusion, 
just  as  the  effort  to  keep  from  beginning  too  abruptly 
often  leads  him  to  compose  useless  introductions.  A  good 
ending  will  do  one  or  both  of  two  things  :  (i)  it  will  leave 
with  the  reader  a  feeling  that  the  composition  has  been 
finished ;  and  (2)  it  will  usually  give  emphatic  expression 
to  some  weighty  thought  or  to  some  concluding  or  sum- 
marizing statement.  The  closing  sentences  of  the  three 
compositions  quoted  in  the  preceding  chapter  may  be 
cited  as  examples  of  good  endings :  — 

1.  The  Prodigal  Son 

And  he  said  unto  him,  "  Son,  thou  art  ever  with  me,  and  all  that  I 
have  is  thine.  It  was  meet  that  we  should  make  merry  and  be  glad : 
for  this  thy  brother  was  dead,  and  is  alive  again ;  and  was  lost,  and  is 
found."     (See  page  71.) 


PROPORTION   AND   EMPHASIS  101 

2.   The  Yosemite  Valley 

These  mighty  mountains  look  down  upon  all  forms  and  shapes  and 
colors  of  majesty  and  beauty.  This  narrow  spot  seems  to  have  been 
created  as  the  home  of  all  that  is  richest  in  inspiration  for  painting,  for 
poetry,  for  heroic  living,  for  imaginative  religion.     (See  page  73.) 

3.   How  to  Write  a  Good  Paragraph 

In  short,  the  paragraph  is  simply  a  miniature  composition.  To  write 
a  good  paragraph,  one  is  obliged  to  observe  the  principles  of  Unity, 
Coherence,  and  Emphasis.  Every  sentence  should  help  to  amplify 
one  central  thought.  All  the  sentences  should  be  arranged  in  a 
natural,  comprehensible  order,  and  should  be  firmly  and  logically 
bound  together.  The  central  idea  should  receive  emphatic  expression 
and  should  occupy  a  position  of  prominence.  A  paragraph  thus  con- 
structed will  leave  upon  the  reader's  mind  a  distinct  impression  of  one 
idea  fully  and  logically  developed.     (See  page  yj.) 

The  Parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son,  it  will  be  noticed,  ends 
as  it  begins,  almost  abruptly.  In  a  brief  narrative  like 
this  nothing  in  the  way  of  formal  introduction  or  conclu- 
sion is  necessary :  the  writer  will  begin  to  tell  his  story  at 
once  and  will  stop  as  soon  as  he  has  finished  it.  In  the 
closing  sentences  of  the  second  composition,  which  is  a 
descriptive  theme,  the  writer  gives  his  concluding  impres- 
sion of  the  scene  as  a  whole.  The  last  example  briefly 
summarizes  the  thought  of  the  whole  theme.  The  sum- 
mary at  the  end  of  a  composition  is  an  excellent  device  for 
giving  special  emphasis  to  the  most  important  ideas  in  an 
exposition  or  an  argument. 

In  the  following  additional  examples  of  good  conclusions 
the  principles  of  Proportion  and  Emphasis  have  been  care- 
fully observed :  — 

1.  Thus  I  jot  down  in  a  note-book  all  my  ideas  or  thoughts  about 
the  subject  on  which  I  intend  to  write,  and  by  examining,  assorting, 
rearranging,  and  proportioning  my  material  I  am  able  to  make  a  ser- 


102  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

viceable  outline  for  my  theme.  (End  of  a  theme  entitled  "  How  I  Make 
the  Outlines  for  my  Weekly  Themes.") 

2.  In  short,  my  native  town  is  enjoying  unbounded  prosperity,  the 
like  of  which  is  seldom  found  in  cities  of  even  much  greater  population. 
Sharon  has  many  industries ;  it  has  abundant  communication  with  the 
outside  world ;  its  people  are  energetic,  thrifty,  public-spirited  citizens : 
what  more  could  any  one  say  for  his  native  place  ?  (End  of  a  theme 
entitled  "Sharon,  —  its  Industries  and  its  People.") 

3.  The  early  morning  ride  through  the  country,  the  hurry  and  bustle 
of  the  awakening  city,  the  strange  scenes  and  the  unfamiliar  life,  the 
dinner  hour  and  its  attractions,  and  finally  the  long  ride  home,  —  all 
these  things  made  a  full  and  eventful  day.  It  was  these  market  days 
that  gave  me  my  first  vivid  impressions  of  the  busy  world  in  which  I 
live.     (End  of  a  theme  entitled  "  Going  to  Market  with  Father.") 

4.  Think  what  changes  have  occurred  about  this  historic  spot! 
The  electric  launch  has  taken  the  place  of  the  bark  canoe ;  the  beauti- 
ful driveway  is  now  used  instead  of  the  rugged  winding  path;  the  an- 
cient stillness  of  the  place  has  given  way  to  the  rumbling  noise  and  roar 
of  toboggans  and  roller-coasters.  All  these  changes,  however,  have 
made  the  old  home  of  the  sachem  Shenango  a  very  picturesque  and 
beautiful  pleasure-ground.  (End  of  a  theme  entitled  "An  Historic 
Spot.") 

Each  of  the  foregoing  conclusions  gives  the  reader  a 
•sense  of  the  completeness  of  the  theme  and  impresses 
upon  his  mind  that  thought  which  the  writer  deems  to  be 
final  and  important.       > 

It  is  worth  while  to  point  out,  by  way  of  warning,  sev- 
*  eral  common  faults  that  the  inexperienced  writer  is  likely 
to  commit  at  the  end  of  his  themes.  One  of  these  has 
already  been  hinted  at:  many  a  student  who  makes  too 
literal  and  too  general  an  application  of  the  statement  that 
the  three  grand  divisions  of  a  composition  are  the  intro- 
duction, the  body,  and  the  conclusion,  frequently  writes  a 
long  "  conclusion  "  when  no  formal  conclusion  at  all,  or,  at 
most,  only  a  brief  final  statement,  is  needed.  Such  an 
ending  is  clearly  a  violation  of  Proportion.     Another  fault, 


PROPORTION   AND   EMPHASIS  103 

somewhat  akin  to  the  first,  is  the  failure  to  stop  when  the 
theme  is  finished.  Perhaps  the  writer  feels  that  he  has 
not  yet  said  all  that  it  is  possible  to  say  on  the  subject ; 
perhaps  —  especially  if  he  has  not  taken  pains  to  plan  his 
theme  —  a  brand-new  idea  has  just  occurred  to  him;  or 
perhaps  his  theme  has  not  yet  reached  its  required  length. 
For  some  such  reason  he  does  not  conclude  his  theme 
when  it  is  finished,  but  allows  himself  to  run  on  aimlessly 
and  ineffectively.  A  third  fault,  more  common  perhaps 
than  either  of  the  others,  is  the  practice  of  stopping  short 
before  the  theme  has  reached  anything  like  completeness. 
Some  students,  indeed,  take  no  pains  to  conclude  their 
themes :  when  they  have  written  down  the  prescribed 
number  of  words,  they  simply  stop  short  "  as  if  they  were 
sawing  off  a  board  at  a  specified  length."  A  theme  ended 
in  this  fashion  is  not  a  finished  composition,  but  a  mere 
fragment.  Such  an  ending  plainly  violates  both  the  princi- 
ple of  Proportion  and  that  of  Emphasis.  The  writer  who 
would  take  advantage  of  the  opportunity  of  securing  spe- 
cial emphasis  at  the  end  of  his  themes  should  beware  of 
these  three  common  pitfalls. 

In  conclusion  it  may  be  said  that  to  secure  force  or 
effectiveness  is  the  general  purpose  of  the  two  related 
principles  of  Proportion  and  Emphasis.  The  principle  of 
Proportion  concerns  itself  with  the  relative  importance  of 
ideas,  and  helps  the  writer  to  decide  how  much  space  he 
shall  give  to  each  part  of  his  composition.  All  the  ideas 
that  he  has  selected  should  be  carefully  weighed,  and  the 
relative  value  of  each  should  be  accurately  determined. 
To  each  idea  should  be  allotted  an  amount  of  space  com- 
mensurate with  its  importance.  Each  theme  thus  becomes 
a  separate  problem  in  Proportion ;  and,  in  conformity  with 
the  principle,  the  student  should  endeavor,  in  every  in- 


104  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

stance,  to  make  a  judicious  apportionment  of  the  space  at 
his  disposal.  The  principle  of  Proportion,  if  applied  with 
careful  judgment,  will  help  the  writer  not  only  to  econo- 
mize his  space,  but  also  to  give  to  each  idea  the  degree  of 
prominence  that  it  deserves.  Another  method  by  which 
one  can  lay  particular  stress  upon  certain  ideas  is  by  plac- 
ing them  in  prominent  positions.  According  to  the  princi- 
ple of  Emphasis  the  two  most  important  points  in  a 
composition  are  the  beginning  and  the  end.  The  open- 
ing and  the  closing  sentences,  therefore,  require  particu- 
lar attention.  The  beginning  should  be  brief,  direct,  and 
emphatic.  It  should  aim  to  catch  the  reader's  attention 
at  once  and  to  get  the  theme  under  way.  Irrelevant, 
lengthy,  roundabout  introductions  violate  both  the  princi- 
ple of  Proportion  and  that  of  Emphasis.  The  end  of  a 
theme  is  likewise  a  point  of  vantage  for  the  writer.  In 
the  closing  sentences  he  can  give  his  final  impression,  his 
concluding  thought,  or  a  summary  of  his  most  important 
ideas.  By  ending  a  theme  in  this  way  he  can  leave  with 
the  reader  a  sense  of  its  completeness,  and  he  can  lay  spe- 
cial stress  upon  that  idea  which  he  deems  to  be  of  para- 
mount and  final  importance.  He  should  guard  against  the 
temptation  to  write  long,  formal  conclusions,  the  disposi- 
tion to  run  on  ineffectively  after  the  theme  has  really  been 
finished,  and  the  common  fault  of  stopping  short  before 
the  theme  is  in  any  sense  complete.  If  a  writer  makes  a 
judicious  apportionment  of  his  space  and  pays  careful 
attention  to  emphasis  at  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  his 
composition,  he  will  have  little  difficulty  in  giving  due 
prominence  to  his  most  important  ideas. 


PROPORTION   AND    EMPHASIS  105 


EXERCISES 

I.  Write  a  theme  on  one  of  the  subjects  selected  by  your  instructor 
from  the  list  of  twenty  theme-subjects  which  you  prepared  in  Exercise 
IV,  page  45. 

II.  Write  the  opening  sentences  of  a  theme  on  one  of  the  subjects 
given  in  Exercise  I,  page  62. 

III.  Write  also  the  closing  sentences  of  a  theme  on  any  one  of  these 
ten  subjects. 

IV.  Criticise  and  discuss  the  following  beginnings  :  — 

1.    A  Day  at  the  Centre  County  Fair 

Accompanied  by  a  friend,  I  visited  this  fair  during  the  season  of  1903. 
We  paid  the  usual  admission  fee,  and  then  set  out  to  see  the  sights. 
We  began  our  examination  at  the  stables.  Here  all  the  race-horses 
were  kept  and  cared  for.  We  first  looked  at  all  the  horses  more 
through  idle  curiosity  than  for  any  other  reason.     Etc. 

2.    The  Coke  Industry  near  Connellsville 

The  Connellsville  coke  region  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  sections  of 
southwestern  Pennsylvania.  It  not  only  abounds  in  that  mineral  which 
now  helps  to  make  possible  the  industrial  supremacy  of  a  great  nation, 
but  it  is  also  rich  in  varied  agricultural  resources.  Its  wide  valleys  and 
rolling  uplands  yield  grasses,  grains,  and  fruits  in  profusion.  In  quality 
and  in  abundance  these  products  rival  those  of  any  other  part  of  the 
United  States.  Through  this  region  flow  the  tributaries  of  the  Mononga- 
hela  and  the  Youghiogheny,  which  supply  it  with  the  finest  water  from 
the  mountain  springs  of  the  Alleghanies.     An  abundant  supply  of  good 

water  is  indispensable  to  the  successful  manufacture  of  coke.     Etc. 

1 

3.    How  to  Hunt  the  Pheasant 

There  are  many  sportsmen  who  enjoy  the  pleasures  of  hunting 
game,  but  who  do  not  thoroughly  understand  the  art  of  shooting. 
[Here  follow  some  hints  on  the  art  of  shooting.] 

It  ft  indeed  good  sport  to  carry  a  gun  over  one's  shoulder  and  to 
plod  through  the  thick  woods  in  the  pleasant  autumn  weather.  The 
forest  possesses  a  kind  of  fascination  for  the  most  prosaic  nature.  One 
finds  a  quiet  enjoyment  in  the  unfamiliar  sights  and   sounds  of  the 


106  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

woods.  Then,  again,  the  true  sportsman  is  always  in  a  state  of  sup- 
pressed excitement  ;  he  is  ever  expectant,  ever  on  the  alert  for  some- 
thing to  happen.  Occasionally,  as  he  picks  his  way  through  the 
bushes,  he  gets  a  shot  at  a  rabbit  or  a  squirrel.  But  I  know  of  no  kind 
of  hunting  that  affords  so  much  harmless  excitement,  that  offers  so 
many  startling  surprises,  and  that  is  on  the  whole  so  uncertain,  as  the 
hunting  of  the  pheasant.     Etc. 

V.  Criticise  and  discuss  the  following  conclusions  :  — 

i .  I  have  no  desire  ever  again  to  spend  another  half-hour  like  that 
one,  which  lasted  from  the  time  we  first  broke  into  the  barn  until  we 
picked  ourselves  up  at  the  bottom  of  the  curve  and  began  to  scrape  off 
the  mud  from  our  drenched  clothes.  In  my  mind  I  can  see  it  all  even 
now  as  plainly  as  when  it  first  occurred.  (End  of  a  theme  entitled  "  My 
Most  Exciting  Half-hour.") 

2.  It  is  probable  that  within  a  few  years  the  main  part  of  the  board- 
walk will  be  widened  to  one  hundred  feet.  On  many  evenings  last 
summer  the  walk  was  so  crowded  as  to  cause  much  discomfort  to  the 
promenaders.  It  is  also  thought  that  the  receding  of  the  coast-line 
will,  in  a  few  years,  make  it  necessary  to  move  the  whole  structure 
farther  seaward.  At  several  places  the  water-line  is  now  nearly  three 
hundred  feet  from  the  walk.  (End  of  a  theme  on  "  The  Board-walk  at 
Atlantic  City.") 

3.  Of  course,  we  knew  how  much  material  there  was  in  each  cut. 
So,  at  the  end  of  each  month,  we  would  estimate  the  percentage  of 
material  that  had  been  excavated.  The  contractor  was  paid  so  much  a 
yard  for  the  material  he  took  out.  Ten  per  cent  of  the  full  amount  of 
money  was,  however,  held  back  until  the  completion  of  the  work.  As 
there  was  nothing  else  for  us  to  do  after  this  job  had  been  finished,  we 
were  dismissed  from  the  service  and  went  home.  (End  of  a  theme 
entitled  "  A  Winter's  Experience  on  an  Engineering  Corps.") 

VI.  Criticise  the  following  theme  with  regard  (1)  to  the  subject; 
(2)  the  introductory  sentences  ;  (3)  the  selection  of  ideas  ;  (4)  coherent 
arrangement;    (5)  the  principle  of  Proportion;   and  (6)  the  conclu- 


Factory  Legislation  in  England 

Upon  considering  the  questions  suggested  by  the  facts  in  relation  to 
obtaining  factory  legislation  in  England  in  connection  with  a  study  of 


PROPORTION   AND   EMPHASIS  107 

laissez-faire  theory,  the  vistas  for  speculative  thought,  contemplative 
reasoning,  and  logical  research  into  cause  and  effect  are  so  multitudinous 
«  and  far-reaching,  that  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  condense  into  a 
short  essay  any  phase  of  a  subject  of  such  vast  and  enlightening  im- 
portance as  well  to  the  student  of  history  as  to  the  political  economist. 
So  important,  indeed,  is  the  history  of  the  struggle  for  this  legislation 
that  the  only  reason  it  has  not  received  a  more  prominent  place  in  the 
history  of  the  period  during  which  it  occurred  must  be  attributed  to  the 
fact  that  there  is  doubtless  no  portion  of  the  world's  history  so  crowded 
with  important  and  startling  events  as  that  from  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  to  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Factory  legislation 
came  by  a  slow  struggle  from  the  closing  years  of  the  eighteenth  century 
to  the  passage  of  the  Act  of  1844.  It  was  based  upon  the  deplorable 
condition  of  child  labor  ;  a  condition  lamented  by  the  petite  hand  of  the 
poetess,  deplored  by  the  earnest  voice  of  the  elder  Pitt,  and  mitigated 
in  a  great  measure  through  the  patient  efforts  of  the  seventh  Earl  of 
Shaftesbury. 

One  interesting  point  in  regard  to  this  struggle  was  the  charge  of 
inconsistency  made  against  some  of  the  supporters  of  the  various  bills 
for  factory  legislation.  This  charge  came  in  connection  with  the  corn 
laws.  The  idea  that  governmental  interference  in  one  case  might  be 
an  evil,  and  in  another  case,  in  some  respects  parallel,  might  be  a  neces- 
sity, does  not  at  the  present  day  seem  to  be  a  question  difficult  of  demon- 
stration ;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  at  this  time  those  who  held  the 
laissez-faire  theory  were  violently  opposed  to  anything  that  appeared 
in  the  least  to  be  tinged  with  "  legislation  in  restraint  of  trade,"  or 
governmental  interference  with  individual  rights  so  dear  to  the  heart 
of  thedEnglishman. 

That  cupidity  was  the  motive  inducing  this  bitter  and  prolonged  fight 
against  fattory  legislation,  does  not  preclude,  but  rather  explains  the 
fact  that  many  persons  were  honestly  opposed  to  what  they  regarded  as 
dangerous  interference  on  the  part  of  the  government. 

It  is  interesting  and  instructive  to  consider  the  effect  of  the  econo- 
mists upon  the  reasoning  of  the  period.  The  mill-owners  had  a  plenti- 
ful supply  of  pauper  children  from  the  work-houses  in  the  large  cities, 
and,  as  a  rule,  they  made  little,  if  any,  effort  to  preserve  the  supply  they 
had  on  hand. 


CHAPTER   X 
THE   OUTLINE 

Professor  Wendell  has  pointed  out  that  the  principles 
of  Composition  as  applied  to  the  whole  theme  aid  the 
writer  chiefly  in  the  prevision,  or  the  planning,  of  his 
work.  When  applied  to  the  paragraph  they  help  him 
both  in  the  prevision  and  in  the  revision  of  his  writing. 
In  sentences  their  main  function  is  to  assist  him  in  the 
work  of  revision.  The  principles  of  Composition  have 
been  discussed  first  in  their  relation  to  the  whole 
composition  in  order  that  the  student  may  use  them  in 
planning  his  themes. 

Some  plan  or  outline  seems  to  be  necessary  in  almost 
every  work  that  involves  construction.  It  is  well  for  the 
student  to  consider  the  literal  meaning  of  the  word  com- 
position ;  the  derivation  of  the  word  (from  com,  together, 
and  ponere,  to  place)  implies  that  the  act  of  composition  is 
the  art  of  putting  things  together.  In  this  sense  the  word 
is  frequently  applied  to  music  and  painting  as  well  as  to 
writing.  It  has  already  been  seen  that  the  writer  should 
select  with  care  the  ideas  that  he  intends  to  use,  and 
should  put  them  together  as  skilfully  and  effectively  as  he 
can.  He  must  know  all  the  parts  that  he  will  need  in 
building  up  his  structure  of  thought,  and  he  must  see 
exactly  how  these  parts  are  related  to  the  whole  fabric 
and  to  one  another.     Before  he  begins  to  write,  he  should 

108 


THE   OUTLINE  109 

endeavor  to  form,  if  possible,  an  accurate  conception  of 
his  composition  as  a  whole. 

The  writing  of  a  theme  .is  in  some  respects  like  the 
building  of  a  house.  In  the  work  of  building  the  first 
thing  that  is  determined  is  the  kind  of  house  to  be  erected. 
Then  the  architect's  plans  are  drawn  up.  The  requisite 
materials  are  next  brought  together.  When  everything  is 
in  readiness  the  actual  work  of  construction  begins.  It  is 
in  this  operation  of  skilfully  fitting  together  the  various 
parts  of  the  projected  structure  that  the  architect's  plans 
are  of  substantial  help  to  the  builder.  The  work  of  the 
writer  must  pass  through  precisely  the  same  stages.  He 
must  find  a  subject  and  must  have  a  definite  end  in  view. 
Next,  he  should  so  plan  his  composition  as  to  indicate  the 
scope  of  his  work,  his  choice  of  materials,  and  his  method 
of  putting  them  together.  Then  follows  the  actual  work 
of  composition.  The  materials  selected  must  be  brought 
together,  elaborated,  and  finished.  In  this  last  stage  of 
the  writer's  task  the  plan  which  he  has  prepared  will  serve 
as  a  valuable  guide. 

A  writer,  then,  will  find  it  worth  while  to  plan  his  work 
with  care.  There  are  several  ways  in  which  an  outline  will 
help  him.  In  the  first  place,  it  will  help  him  to  keep  his 
work  within  bounds.  In  making  an  outline  he  will  have 
to  test  each  idea  by  the  principle  of  Unity.  When  he  has 
once  planned  his  theme,  it  will  be  easier  for  him  to  avoid 
digressions  and  to  exclude  all  extraneous  ideas.  In  plan- 
ning his  work,  moreover,  the  writer  can  best  determine  what 
is  the  most  logical  order  of  thought.  In  an  outline  the 
main  ideas  of  a  composition  should  be  set  down  in  their 
natural  sequence.  This  logical  sequence  of  ideas  is  by  no 
means  always  obvious ;  and  sometimes  it  can  be  seen  only 
after  considerable  thought.     To  provide  for  an  orderly 


110  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC 

arrangement  of  the  various  subdivisions  of  one's  subject  is 
always  an  important  step  in  the  planning  of  a  composition. 
Again,  the  writer  who  plans  his  work  before  he  writes  is 
more  likely  to  find  an  effective  arrangement.  Thus  the 
making  of  an  outline  helps  the  writer  to  apply  the  princi- 
ple of  Emphasis  to  his  work.  Finally,  it  is  only  after  he 
has  made  his  plan  that  he  is  in  a  position  to  consider  the 
relative  importance  of  the  different  parts  of  his  composi- 
tion. He  can  then  determine  how  much  space  is  to  be 
given  to  each  subdivision.  Thus  it  may  be  seen  that  the 
practice  of  planning  a  composition  with  care  is  one  of  the 
very  best  ways  of  applying  to  it  the  principles  of  Unity, 
Selection,  Coherence,  Emphasis,  and  Proportion.  Further- 
more, the  very  act  of  planning  a  composition  will  often 
suggest  new  and  valuable  material.  It  is  frequently  true 
that  one  does  not  know  exactly  what  are  his  ideas  on  a 
subject  until,  in  his  effort  to  plan  his  composition,  he  is 
obliged  to  take  account  of  stock.  Above  all,  if  a  writer's 
outline  is  the  result  of  close  and  careful  thought,  it  will 
enable  him,  so  to  speak,  to  see  his  composition  as  a  whole 
before  it  is  written. 

Such  are  the  advantages  that  arise  from  the  practice  of 
making  and  using  an  outline.  In  view  of  the  great  practi- 
cal help  that  a  writer  can  thus  give  himself  by  a  well-con- 
sidered prevision  of  his  work,  it  is  surprising  that  many 
students  are  disposed  to  neglect  this  important  preliminary 
step.  Many  a  young  writer  seems  to  think  that,  by  follow- 
ing an  outline,  he  will  be  putting  his  composition  into  a 
sort  of  strait-jacket,  —  that  he  will  thus  hamper  his  freedom 
and  put  a  stumbling-block  in  the  way  of  originality.  In 
consequence,  he  begins  to  write  as  soon  as  he  has  decided 
on  a  subject.  He  is  apparently  in  so  great  a  hurry  that  he 
does  not  stop  to  take  account  of  his  stock  of  ideas,  to  deter- 


THE   OUTLINE  III 

mine  upon  a  logical  arrangement,  and  to  examine  his 
thoughts  for  the  purpose  of  seeing  their  relative  value. 
He  jots  down  his  ideas  at  haphazard,  one  after  another, 
just  as  they  occur  to  him.  It  is  no  wonder  that  a  composi- 
tion written  in  this  fashion  is  rambling,  incoherent,  and 
ineffective.  Properly  speaking,  it  is  not  a  composition  at 
all :  it  is  simply  a  jumble  of  ideas.  Indeed,  such  a  medley 
no  more  deserves  to  be  called  a  composition  than  a  pile  of 
stones  deserves  to  be  called  a  house.  For  writing  of  this 
sort  there  can  be  only  one  prescription :  let  every  writer, 
after  deciding* upon  his  subject,  make  for  his  guidance 
such  an  outline  as  will  indicate  the  selection,  the  coherent 
arrangement,  and  the  relative  importance  of  his  ideas.  By 
careful  planning,  one  can  best  secure  unity,  logical  connec- 
tion, effective  arrangement,  and  proper  proportion. 

Thus  a  serviceable  outline  is  usually  the  result  of  a  care- 
ful application  of  the  principles  of  Composition  to  one's 
work.  The  important  questions  which  the  writer,  in  mak- 
ing his  outline,  should  ask  himself,  are:  (i)  What  are  the 
main  ideas  to  be  used  ?  (2)  What  thoughts  are  of  coordi- 
nate rank,  and  what  thoughts  are  clearly  subordinate  to  the 
others?  (a)  What  is  the  most  coherent  and  effective 
arrangement  ?  (4)  How  much  space  shall  be  given  to  the 
development  of  each  of  the  main  ideas  ? 

Professor  Wendell,  in  his  "  English  Composition,"  has 
suggested  an  excellent  method,  which  any  writer  may  fol- 
low in  outlining  his  subject.  "  On  separate  bits  of  paper," 
he  says,  "  I  write  down  the  separate  headings  that  occur  to 
me,  in  what  seems  to  me  the  natural  order.  Then,  when 
my  little  pack  of  cards  is  complete,  —  in  other  words,  when 
I  have  a  card  for  every  heading  I  think  of,  —  I  study  them 
and  sort  them  almost  as  deliberately  as  I  should  sort  a 
hand  at  whist ;  and  it  has  very  rarely  been  my  experience 


112  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

to  find  that  a  shift  of  arrangement  will  not  decidedly  im- 
prove the  original  order.  Ideas  that  really  stand  in  the 
relation  of  proof  to  proposition  frequently  present  them- 
selves as  coordinate.  The  same  idea  will  sometimes  phrase 
itself  in  two  or  three  distinct  ways,  whose  superficial  differ- 
ences for  the  moment  conceal  their  identity ;  and  more 
frequently  still,  the  comparative  strength  and  importance, 
and  the  mutual  relations  of  really  distinct  ideas,  will  in  the 
first  act  of  composition  curiously  conceal  themselves  from 
the  writer.  A  few  minutes'  shuffling  of  these  little  cards 
has  often  revealed  to  me  more  than  I  should  have  learned 
by  hours  of  unaided  pondering." 

It  is  clear,  then,  that  a  writer  should  make  some  analysis 
of  his  subject  before  he  begins  to  write.  This  he  should 
do  in  order  to  determine  what  ideas  are  of  primary  impor- 
tance, and  what  ideas  are  clearly  secondary  and  subordi- 
nate. Such  an  analysis  is  necessary  in  order  that  each 
dependent  idea  may  be  brought  under  the  main  idea  to 
which  it  is  logically  related.  Every  careful  writer  desires 
to  see  just  what  are  the  necessary  subdivisions  of  his  sub- 
ject, and  what  are  the  related  and  subordinate  ideas  that 
belong  to  each  subdivision ;  for  he  has  learned  that  it  is 
customary  to  put  into  one  paragraph  all  the  thoughts  that 
contribute  to  the  development  of  one  main  idea. 

In  the  finished  composition  a  separate  paragraph  should 
be  given  to  all  the  thoughts  that  properly  belong  to  each 
important  subdivision.  If  the  writer,  in  planning  his 
work,  has  taken  pains  to  bring  together  under  one  head 
such  thoughts  as  are  closely  related,  each  subdivision, 
together  with  the  subordinate  ideas  that  belong  to  it,  will 
furnish  material  for  a  separate  paragraph.  Thus  the 
writer  can  make  his  outline  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  para- 
graph structure  of  his  composition.     The  student  should, 


THE   OUTLINE  113 

however,  take  great  pains  not  to  make  too  many  subdivi- 
sions. He  should  consider  the  scope  of  his  work.  He 
must  remember  that  he  is  planning  only  a  short  theme, 
and  that  if  he  makes  too  many  paragraphs,  his  composi- 
tion is  likely  to  seem  fragmentary  and  disjointed.  A 
searching  analysis  of  one's  subject  and  a  close  scrutiny  of 
the  materials  that  are  to  be  used  in  discussing  it  will  gen- 
erally save  one  from  the  common  error  of  having  too  many 
subdivisions.  Even  after  an  outline  has  been  made,  a  care- 
ful analysis  will  often  enable  the  writer  to  see  a  more  con- 
sistent division  and  to  devise  a  more  coherent  arrangement 
of  paragraph-fc>pics.  This  fact  can  perhaps  be  made 
clearer  by  means  of  an  illustration. 

The  following  was  submitted  by  a  student  as  an  outline 
for  a  theme  on  "  How  to  Conduct  a  Lumber  Business":  — 

1  1.    Buying  the  stock. 

(a)   The  kind  to  buy. 
^  2.   The  arrangement  of  the  lumber  in  the  yard. 

(a)    It  should  be  piled  in  sheds. 
^  3.    Requisites  for  conducting  the  business. 

(a)    Good  teams  and  reliable  men. 

(d)   A  sufficient  supply  of  good  lumber. 
^T  4.   Accuracy  in  measuring  and  counting. 
^  5.   Promptness  in  filling  orders. 

A  little  examination  of  the  foregoing  outline  will  reveal 
the  fact  that  there  are  in  reality  only  three  main  ideas  to 
be  discussed.  Both  If  1  and  Tf  2  deal  with  the  work  of 
getting  the  stock  of  lumber  together  in  readiness  for  pur- 
chasers. The  subject  of  IT  3,  with  the  exception  of  {b\  is 
the  necessary  equipment  for  conducting  the  business. 
The  last  two  topics  have  to  do  with  the  business  details  of 
operating  a  lumber-yard.  It  would  seem,  then,  that  for 
the  treatment  of  this  subject  within  the  narrow  limits  of  a 


114  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

brief  theme,  only  three  paragraphs  are  required.  More- 
over, before  a  lumber-dealer  buys  and  arranges  his  stock, 
he  will  naturally  be  at  some  pains  to  secure  the  equipment 
he  needs  for  carrying  on  his  business.  A  transposition  of 
these  two  ideas  will*  therefore  help  to  produce  a  more  logi- 
cal arrangement.  The  revised  outline,  then,  with  some 
additional  material  suggested  by  the  new  analysis,  will 
assume  something  like  the  following  form :  — 

^[  i .  The  equipment  needed  for  the  successful  operation  of  a  lumber- 
yard :  horses,  wagons,  sidings,  reliable  men,  etc. 

%  2.  How  to  stock  the  yard  :  hints  as  to  the  purchase,  the  arrange- 
ment, and  the  care  of  the  lumber. 

%  3.  How  to  attend  to  the  business  details:  the  value  and  impor- 
ance  of  courtesy,  promptness,  accuracy,  and  sound  business  methods. 

Many  persons  do  not  find  it  necessary  to  write  down  an 
outline  for  a  short  theme,  but  every  one  will  find  it  advan- 
tageous to  have  an  outline  either  in  mind  or  on  paper. 
The  average  student,  it  is  believed,  can  work  best  with  his 
plan  spread  out  before  him.  This  is  certainly  the  case  in 
the  writing  of  longer  compositions,  where  it  is  often  a  mat- 
ter of  some  difficulty  to  make  the  proper  subdivisions  and 
to  settle  questions  of  arrangement  and  proportion.  The  fol- 
lowing outline,  which  the  author  drew  up  as  his  plan  for 
Chapter  VII,  on  "Unity  and  Selection,"  will  serve  to  show 
how  fully  a  composition  may  be  outlined  before  it  is  written. 
In  this  outline  the  larger  divisions  of  the  subject  have  been 
marked  with  Roman  numerals  and  printed  in  small  capitals, 
and  the  central  thought  of  each  paragraph  has  been  stated 
in  a  single  sentence. 

I.   Unity  of  Purpose 

^[  1.  Four  things  are  necessary  to  the  unity  of  the  whole  composi- 
tion :  unity  of  purpose,  unity  of  thought,  unity  of  treatment,  and  unity 
of  feeling. 


THE   OUTLINE  115 

^[2.    A  writer  must  first  have  a  clear  conception  of  his  subject. 

^[3.    He  should  have  a  definite  aim  or  purpose. 

1 4.    He  should  also  consider  the  class  of  readers  for  whom  he  writes. 

If  5.  The  "average  reader"  is  the  person  for  whom  most  books 
and  periodicals  are  written,  and  for  whom  the  student  is  supposed  to 
write  his  themes. 

Tf  6.  The  "  point  of  view  "  can  best  be  understood  by  reference  to 
painting,  photography,  and  descriptive  writing. 

%  7.  One  should  have  a  definite  and  fixed  point  of  view  in  all  kinds 
of  composition. 

Tf  8.  A  single  example  will  show  how  Unity  may  be  violated  by  a 
change  in  the  point  of  view. 

^9.  It  is  by  attention  to  these  four  requirements  that  the  writer 
can  secure  unity  0$  purpose  and  can  best  prepare  himself  to  make  a 
selection  of  ideas.     (Summary  and  transition.) 

II.  Unity  of  Thought 

J  10.  All  the  ideas  of  a  composition  should  have  an  unmistakable 
bearing  on  the  subject. 

^T 11.  The  principle  of  Unity  forbids  the  intrusion  of  any  irrelevant 
ideas. 

1  12.  According  to  the  principle  of  Selection  only  those  ideas 
should  be  chosen  which  are  important  and  essential. 

1 13.  No  essential  idea  should  be  omitted. 

1 14.  One  way  in  which  the  writer  can  help  himself  in  the  selection 
of  ideas  is  to  ask  himself  questions  about  his  subject. 

1"  15.  Another  way  is  to  jot  down  all  possible  ideas  on  a  subject  and, 
by  a  process  of  exclusion,  to  choose  what  is  valuable  and  essential. 

%  16.  It  is  hardest  for  the  writer  to  make  a  choice  from  those  ideas 
which  are  just  "  on  the  line." 

f  17.  The  student  should  be  especially  on  his  guard  against  two 
common  ways  of  violating  the  unity  of  thought. 

5  18.    He  should  avoid  irrelevant  introductions. 

1[  19.    He  should  not  digress  from  his  subject. 

III.   Unity  of  Treatment 

I20.  Unity  of  treatment  requires  that  the  writer  shall  make  the 
reader  see  how  each  idea  is  related  to  the  subject. 


Il6  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 


IV.  Unity  of  Feeling 

1"  21.   Unity  of  feeling  means  emotional  consistency. 
I22.    The  effect  of  disregarding  unity  of  feeling  can  be  made  evi- 
dent by  several  examples. 

V.   Summary 

^"23.  Such  are  the  requirements  of  the  principles  of  Unity  and  Se- 
lection as  applied  to  the  whole  composition.  (A  summary  of  the  whole 
chapter.) 

We  may  say,  then,  in  summing  up,  that  it  is  just  as 
necessary  and  helpful  for  the  student  to  make  an  outline 
of  the  composition  that  he  is  going  to  write  as  it  is  for  the 
architect  to  make  a  careful  plan  of  the  house  that  he  in- 
tends to  build.  The  making  of  an  outline  is  one  of  the 
most  practicable  ways  of  applying  the  principles  of  Com- 
position to  the  whole  theme.  If  the  student  plans  his 
work  with  care,  he  will  be  able  to  avoid  the  faults  that 
arise  from  the  practice  of  writing  down  his  thoughts  at  hap- 
hazard, and  will  have  for  his  guidance  such  a  plan  as  will 
indicate  the  selection,  the  coherent  arrangement,  and  the 
relative  importance  of  his  ideas.  Every  writer  finds  it 
helpful  to  have  some  such  outline  either  in  mind  or  on 
paper.  Even  in  the  writing  of  short  themes  the  student 
can  lighten  the  work  of  revision  and  can  secure  better 
results  if  he  has  a  carefully  prepared  plan  before  him ;  and 
in  the  writing  of  longer  compositions  he  will  find  an  out- 
line well-nigh  indispensable. 

EXERCISES 

I.  Select  some  chapter  in  this  book  and  make  an  outline  of  it  similar 
to  the  author's  outline  of  the  chapter  on  u  Unity  and  Selection." 

II.  Make  a  similar  outline  of  some  article  in  a  current   magazine. 


THE   OUTLINE  117 

The  instructor  may  assign  a  different  magazine  article  to  each  member 
of  the  class. 

III.  1.  Select  any  one  of  the  general  subjects  given  under  Exercise 
I  (page  43),  or  take  any  general  subject  of  a  similar  character,  and  by 
narrowing  it  down,  derive  from  it  five  restricted  subjects  suitable  for 
short  themes. 

2.  From  this  list  of  five  subjects  pick  out  the  one  subject  on  which 
you  could  most  easily  write  a  theme. 

3.  Jot  down  all  the  ideas  which  occur  to  you  as  possible  materials 
for  a  theme  on  the  subject  you  have  chosen.  Set  down  these,  ideas  just 
as  they  occur  to  you  and  number  them. 

4.  Now  put  a  cross  before  each  idea  which  has  an  undoubted  place 
in  the  theme.  Strike  out  every  idea  which  clearly  does  not  belong  in 
the  theme.  If  there^re  any  ideas  which  seem  to  be  just  "  on  the  line," 
put  a  question  mark  before  each  of  them.  Give  this  third  class  of  ideas 
careful  consideration.  Do  not  use  a  single  one  of  these  doubtful  ideas 
unless  you  can  give  yourself  a  satisfactory  reason  for  including  it  in  the 
theme. 

5.  Having  thus  chosen  the  ideas  for  your  theme,  arrange  them  in 
the  most  coherent  and  effective  order. 

6.  Decide  on  the  number  of  paragraphs  which  the  theme  is  to  con- 
tain. Put  into  a  single  sentence  the  central  thought  which  is  to  form 
the  subject  of  each  paragraph. 

7.  With  the  understanding  that  the  theme  is  to  contain  about  four 
hundred  words,  indicate  how  much  space  is  to  be  given  to  each  para- 
graph. 

8.  Write  the  t^eme. 

IV.  The  following  have  been  prepared  by  students  as  suitable  out- 
lines for  short  thqmes  containing  about  four  hundred  words  each.  In 
these  outlines  each  paragraph-topic  has  been  indicated,  and  at  the  end 
of  each  topic  numerals  have  been  placed  to  show  the  probable  number 
of  words  that  are  to  be  used  in  the  development  of  each  paragraph. 
Study  these  outlines,  and  point  out  the  defects  or  the  merits  of  each :  — 

1.  The  Original  Name  of  my  Native  Town 

1  1.  The  early  history  of  the  Standing  Stone.     (200) 

1"  2.  The  settlement  and  the  naming  of  the  town  by  the  whites. 
(100) 

1[  3.  The  change  of  the  name  to  Huntingdon.     (100) 


Il8  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

2.   Lost  in  the  Woods 

IT  i.    I  start  to  the  woods  with  orders  for  the  log-cutters.     (70) 
%  2.   I  come  to  the  log  camp,  and  on  my  way  back  I  am  caught  in  a 
snowstorm.     (230) 

"f  3.   I  finally  reach  home.     (100) 

3.   Going  to  Market  with  Father 

f  1.  I  always  found  the  morning  ride  to  town  pleasant  and  interest- 
ing.    (100) 

1"  2.   After  our  arrival  we  were  kept  busy  selling  our  produce.     (100) 

J  3.    The  dinner  hour  was  most  welcome.     (50) 

If  4-  We  always  hurried  after  dinner  to  see  how  soon  we  could  get 
started  on  the  long  ride  home.     (100) 

%  5.   Conclusion.     (50) 

4.   How  I  Make  the  Outline  for  My  Weekly  Theme 

Tf  1.  Note-book  ideas  or  thoughts.     (50) 

TT  2.  Assorting  material.     (125) 

*|[  3.  Rearranging  material.     (125) 

%  4.  The  number  of  words  in  each  paragraph.     (60) 

%  5.  Conclusion.     (40) 

5.   A  Trip  down  a  Coal  Mine 

^T  1.  Going  down.     (100) 

1"  2.  My  first  impression.     (90) 

1"  3.  What  I  saw.     (150) 

%  4.  Coming  up.     (60) 

6.  Why  the  Sharon  Steel  Company  is  the  Greatest  Competi- 
tor of  the  Steel  Trust 

J  1 .  The  Sharon  Steel  Company  is  a  great  competitor  for  two  rea- 
sons :   (a)  size  ;  (J?)  cheap  production  of  finished  work.     (75) 

%  2.  Size  of  the  works  :  (a)  facts  showing  its  size  ;  (J?)  divisions  of 
the  plant;  (c)  the  largest  independent  corporation.     (125) 

^  3.  Cheap  production  :  (a)  reasons  for  it,  —  the  Company  owns  its 
own  ore  and  limestone,  and  everything  possible  is  done  at  the  works ; 
(J?)  its  excellent  system  illustrated.     (150) 

1"  4.    Conclusion  and  summary.     (50) 


THE   OUTLINE  119 


7.   On  the  Hudson  River  during  a  Storm 

If  1.  The  storm  comes  upon  us.  (75) 
1  2.  An  account  of  the  storm.  (100) 
If  3.   The  boat  capsizes  and  one  boy  is  drowned.     (225) 

8.   Familiar  Scenes  along  Yankee  Run 

1"  1.    Yankee  Run:  what  it  is,  and  how  people  look  upon  it.     (75) 

f  2.  The  familiar  places:  (a)  the  "Old  Bridge";  (6)  the  "Oil 
Hole";  (0  near  "Meadows  Farm";  (d)  "Whittacker's  Woods."  (175) 

1  3.  Arthurholt's  Mill :  {a)  its  inhabitants ;  (d)  the  mill  and  the 
dam.     (75) 

1"  4.   Conclusion.*    (75) 

9.  The  Preparation  of  Coal  for  the  Market 

1[  1.    The  breaker:  the  machine  and  its  devices.     (100) 

1"  2.    The   process   at  the   breaker:    (a)  breaking;    (6)  assorting; 

(c)  purifying.     (200) 

^[  3.    The  process  of  washing :  (a)  assorting  and  purifying ;   (b)  the 

use  of  water;  (c)  the  double  process  of  purification.     (100) 

10.  How  to  Raise  Buckwheat  on  Poor  Ground 

T"  1 .  Introduction  :  an  outline  statement  of  main  facts  in  theme.  (30) 
%  2.  Preparation  of  the  ground  :  (a)  ploughing ;  (6)  harrowing,  (no) 
1"  3.    Drilling:  (a)  when  it  should  be  drilled,  and  why;   (b)  amount 

to  be  drilled  in  each  acre.     (80) 

H  4.    Fertilizer^  (a)  kind ;    (b)  the  amount  to  be  put  on  an  acre ; 

(V)  a  mistake  that  farmers  commonly  make.     (130) 
1"  5.    Summary.     (50) 

n.  An  Exciting  Fox  Chase 

1"  i-  Introduction.     (50) 

^[  2.  An  account  of  fox-chasing  in  Chester  County.     (75) 

%  3.  The  preparation  for  the  chase.     (80) 

1  4.  The  freedom  of  the  fox.     (40) 

1  5.  The  hunt  or  chase.     (60) 

T[  6.  Accidents  that  happened  during  the  chase.     (70) 

^[  7.  Conclusion.     (25) 


120  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 


12.   Our  Township  High  School 

1  i.  Introduction  :  its  organization,     (ioo) 

%  2.  The  school:  (a)  buildings;  (d)  number  of  pupils;  (c)  re- 
marks, (ioo) 

^[3.  The  work  of  the  school:  (a)  'its  purpose;  (b)  how  it  differs 
from  city  high  schools.     (100) 

^  4.  Its  promise  for  the  future.     (75) 

f  5.  Concluding  thought.     (25) 


Ill 

THE   PARAGRAPH 


CHAPTER   XI 
THE   PARAGRAPH:    THE   PRINCIPLES    OF   COMPOSITION 

i.  Definition. —  A  paragraph  is  "a  connected  series  of 
sentences  constituting  the  development  of  a  single  topic." 
From  this  definition  it  is  clear  that  a  paragraph  may  be  a 
short  composition,  complete  in  itself ;  that  is  to  say,  the 
"  single  topic  *  which  is  developed  may  be  a  narrowly 
restricted  subject  capable  of  being  adequately  treated  in  a 
single  paragraph.  Usually,  however,  the  paragraph  forms 
only  a  part  of  a  larger  whole.  We  have  already  seen  that 
in  gathering  material  for  his  composition  the  writer  is 
obliged  to  make  a  selection.  As  soon  as  he  has  begun  to 
think  about  his  subject,  he  seizes  upon  certain  ideas  that 
are  essential  to  the  development  of  his  theme.  While  these 
ideas  are  all  related  to  the  general  subject,  they  are  all 
more  or  less  distinct  from  one  another.  In  other  words, 
each  main  idea  possesses  a  certain  unity.  These  main  ideas 
constitute  the  natural  subdivisions  of  a  subject.  All  the 
sentences  that  bear  upon  one  of  these  natural  subdivisions 
are  grouped  together  in  a  single  paragraph. 

It  is  not  difficult,  therefore,  to  understand  the  origin  and 
purpose  of  the  paragraph.  The  reader  should  have  an 
opportunity  of  becoming  just  as  familiar  with  the  subdi- 
visions of  a  given  subject  as  is  the  writer  himself.  Accord- 
ingly, if  the  various  thoughts  which  go  to  make  up  a 
composition  are  to  be  so  presented  that  the  reader 
may   apprehend   them  with   ease    and    distinctness,    and 

123 


124  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

with  the  least  possible  expenditure  of  mental  energy, 
each  important  subdivision  should  in  some  way  be  kept 
separate  from  every  other.  The  writer  naturally  feels 
bound  to  help  the  reader  as  much  as  possible.  He  accord- 
ingly tries  to  separate  the  group  of  thoughts  that  centre 
around  one  main  idea  from  the  group  of  thoughts  that 
centre  around  another  distinct  subdivision  of  his  subject. 
This  effort  to  help  the  reader  to  a  clear  and  easy  appre- 
hension of  the  writers  thought  has  resulted  in  the  con- 
ventional division  known  as  the  paragraph.  Each  new 
paragraph  marks  for  the  reader  a  new  turn  in  the  writer's 
thought.  The  paragraph,  then,  is  a  convenient  mechani- 
cal device  by  which  the  writer  may  bring  together,  for  the 
sake  of  the  reader,  each  group  of  ideas  that  are  closely 
connected,  and  keep  apart  those  ideas  that  do  not  belong 
together.  Thus  it  has  become  a  matter  of  custom,  or 
Good  Use,  to  put  into  one  paragraph  all  the  connected 
thoughts  about  a  particular  topic  or  convenient  subdivision 
of  a  subject. 

2.  Unity.  —  The  very  nature  and  purpose  of  the  para- 
graph make  unity  absolutely  essential ;  for  a  paragraph  is 
a  group  of  sentences  constituting  the  development  of  a 
single  topic  or  a  single  subdivision  of  a  subject.  With 
respect  to  the  whole  composition,  each  paragraph  is  but  a 
fractional  part;  but  when  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the 
composition,  each  paragraph  may  be  regarded  as  a  distinct 
unit.  The  paragraph  stands  as  an  intermediate  unit 
between  the  whole  composition  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
sentence  On  the  other.  It  is  a  smaller  unit  than  the  whole 
composition,  just  as  a  foot  is  smaller  than  a  yard ;  and  it  is 
a  larger  unit  than  the  sentence,  just  as  a  foot  is  larger 
than  an  inch.  To  possess  unity  a  paragraph  should  con- 
tain all  the  sentences  that  contribute  to  the  development 


THE   PARAGRAPH  .  125 

of  one  main  idea,  but  no  more.  Each  paragraph  is  printed 
or  written  in  such  a  way  that  it  stands  out  as  a  single  unit, 
distinctly  separated  from  that  which  precedes  and  from 
that  which  follows.  If  a  paragraph  is  made  to  contain 
either  more  or  less  than  the  thoughts  that  are  necessary 
to  the  amplification  of  a  single  central  idea,  it  violates  the 
principle  of  Unity. 

Since  it  is  the  business  of  the  paragraph  to  give  the 
development  of  one  main  idea,  the  central  thought  should 
always  be  readily  apparent.  In  fact,  one  of  the  best  ways 
in  which  a  writer  ca*  test  the  unity  of  his  paragraphs  is  to 
see  whether  the  thought  of  each  can  be  summed  up  in  a 
single  sentence.  Usually  the  topic  is  explicitly  stated  at 
the  very  beginning  of  the  paragraph.  The  central  idea 
should  never  be  lost  sight  of  until  the  end  is  reached. 
Unless  a  connecting  sentence  is  necessary  at  the  beginning 
of  the  paragraph,  the  sentence  that  contains  a  statement  of 
the  topic  to  be  treated  usually  stands  first.  This  opening 
sentence,  which  sets  forth  the  subject  of  the  paragraph, 
may  for  convenience  be  called  the  topic-sentence.  In  the 
following  quotation,  which  may  be  taken  as  an  example 
of  a  well-unified  paragraph,  the  topic-sentence  has  been 

italicized :  — 

m 

We  can  nowhere  find  a  better  type  of  a  perfectly  free  creature  than 
in  the  common  house-fly.  In  every  step  of  his  swift  mechanical  march, 
and  in  every  pause  of  his  resolute  observation,  there  is  one  and  the 
same  expression  of  perfect  egotism,  perfect  independence  and  self-con- 
fidence, and  conviction  of  the  world's  having  been  made  for  flies. 
Strike  at  him  with  your  hand  ;  and  to  him  the  aspect  of  the  matter  is 
what  to  you  it  would  be  if  an  acre  of  red  clay,  ten  feet  thick,  tore  itself 
up  from  the  ground  and  came  crashing  down  with  an  aim.  He  steps 
out  of  the  way  of  your  hand,  and  alights  on  the  back  of  it.  You  can- 
not terrify  him,  nor  govern  him,  nor  persuade  him,  nor  convince  him. 
He  has  his  own  positive  opinion  on  all  matters  —  not  an  unwise  one, 


126  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

usually,  for  his  own  ends  —  and  will  ask  no  advice  of  yours.  He  has 
no  work  to  do  —  no  tyrannical  instinct  to  obey.  The  earthworm  has 
his  digging;  the  bee  her  gathering  and  building;  the  spider  her  cun- 
ning network ;  the  ant  her  treasury  and  accounts.  All  these  are  com- 
paratively slaves,  or  people  of  business.  But  your  fly,  free  in  the  air, 
free  in  the  chamber  —  a  black  incarnation  of  caprice  —  wandering, 
investigating,  flitting,  flirting,  feasting  at  his  will,  with  rich  variety  of 
choice  in  feast,  from  the  heaped  sweets  in  the  grocer's  window  to  those 
of  the  butcher's  back-yard,  —  what  freedom  is  like  his  ? 1 

The  division  of  a  composition  into  paragraphs  is  with 
many  writers  merely  a  matter  of  whim  or  chance.  One 
paragraph  may  consist  of  but  a  single  sentence  compris- 
ing about  a  dozen  words;  another  may  contain  four  or 
five  hundred  words.  Many  persons  seem  to  obey  no  taw 
or  principle  of  paragraph  division.  Their  paragraphing 
is  faulty  simply  because  they  have  not  yet  learned  the 
meaning  and  use  of  the  paragraph.  The  careless  writer 
may  violate  the  Unity  of  the  paragraph  in  any  one  of 
three  ways :  he  may  make  some  of  his  paragraphs  contain 
only  fractional  parts  of  the  development  of  one  main  idea; 
or  he  may  make  a  paragraph  contain  more  than  the  devel- 
opment of  one  topic ;  or  he  may  allow  himself  to  digress 
from  the  topic  which  the  paragraph  discusses.  Each  of 
these  three  violations  of  Unity  in  the  paragraph  is  deserv- 
ing of  further  comment. 

In  the  first  place,  one  should  not  make  the  mistake  of 
putting  into  a  separate  paragraph  less  than  the  complete 
development  of  one  topic  or  subdivision  of  a  subject. 
Inexperienced  writers  are  likely  to  make  too  many  para- 
graphs. This  is  perhaps  the  most  common  fault  in  para- 
graphing. Many  students  start  a  new  paragraph  with 
every  new  sentence.     Thus  their  paragraphs  are  too  short 

1  From  John  Ruskin's  "  Queen  of  the  Air." 


THE   PARAGRAPH  127 

to  possess  unity.  This  violation  of  Unity,  like  the  oppo- 
site fault  of  putting  too  much  into  a  paragraph,  occurs 
either  because  the  writer  has  not  yet  learned  to  recognize 
the  paragraph  as  a  unified  group  of  sentences  bearing 
upon  one  central  idea,  or  because  he  has  failed  to  make  a 
careful  analysis  and  division  of  his  subject.  The  following 
passage,  taken  from  a  student's  theme,  illustrates  the 
way  in  which  many  persons  divide  their  writing  into 
paragraphs :  — 

Some  dairymen  who  lfce  in  the  vicinity  of  Pittsburg,  while  driving 
to  the  city  in  the  morning,  are  in  the  habit  of  staying  on  the  tracks  and 
delaying  the  electric  cars  as  much  as  possible. 

One  bright,  cold  morning  in  midwinter,  when  the  ground  was 
frozen  hard  and  covered  with  a  deep  snow,  I  was  riding  on  one  of  these 
cars. 

The  rails  were  very  slippery,  and  the  motorman  was  compelled  to 
use  a  good  deal  of  sand. 

I  had  almost  reached  my  destination  when  I  saw  one  of  these  milk- 
men in  front  of  the  car. 

The  car  was  going  down  a  very  steep  hill  at  the  time,  and  the  motor- 
man  at  once  began  to  ring  his  gong. 

The  milkman  paid  no  attention  to  it. 

The  car  continued  tB  bear  down  upon  the  wagon,  and  only  when  it 
got  within  a  few  yards «of  the  vehicle  did  the  motorman  attempt  to  stop. 

But  it  was  too  late  *  although  the  wheels  were  locked,  they  went 
sliding  along  the  shining  rails,  and  the  heavy  car  bumped  into  the 
wagon. 

The  fault  of  writing  down  a  series  of  short  paragraphs, 
each  one  a  sentence  or  two  in  length,  is  especially  common 
in  narrative  writing.  In  this  kind  of  composition  there 
seems  to  be  a  special  temptation  to  violate  the  Unity  of 
the  paragraph.  The  reason  is  perhaps  to  be  found  in  the 
fact  that  short  paragraphs,  like  short  sentences,  seem  to 
produce  an  effect  of  progress,  to  give  a  sense  of  rapid 


128  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

movement.  All  readers  know,  however,  that  the  effect  is 
purely  artificial  and  often  illusory.  It  sometimes  happens 
that  such  a  group  of  short  paragraphs  makes  little  or  no 
real  progress  in  the  story.  They  are  like  a  hobby-horse : 
they  give  one  the  sense  of  motion  even  though  no  real 
progress  is  made. 

A  second  way  in  which  the  Unity  of  the  paragraph  is 
often  violated  is  by  the  practice  of  putting  into  one  para- 
graph more  than  belongs  to  the  development  of  one  topic. 
A  careless  writer,  who  has  never  learned  to  appreciate  the 
value  of  the  paragraph  both  to  himself  and  to  the  reader, 
and  who  does  not  take  pains  to  outline  his  theme,  fre- 
quently makes  a  paragraph  contain  what  properly  belongs 
to  two  or  three  distinct  divisions  of  his  subject.  Sometimes 
a  theme  containing  five  or  six  hundred  words  is  put  into  a 
single  paragraph.  Page  after  page  is  written  without  a 
single  break.  This  violation  of  Unity  arises  from  the  fact 
that  the  writer  has  either  failed  to  analyze  his  subject,  or 
neglected  to  mark  the  proper  divisions  of  his  thought. 
When  no  effort  is  made  to  indicate  the  distinct  stages  of 
the  writer's  progress,  the  reader  is  obliged  to  shift  for  him- 
self. He  gropes,  as  it  were,  in  the  dark.  He  is  likely  to 
become  confused  and  perplexed ;  he  may  be  misled.  A 
great,  unwieldy  paragraph,  which  really  has  no  central 
unifying  thought,  but  which  treats  of  a  number  of  different 
things,  is  a  serious  stumbling-block  to  the  reader's  under- 
standing. It  would  be  difficult  indeed  to  follow  the 
thought  of  this  chapter,  for  instance,  if  it  were  all  printed 
as  a  single  paragraph. 

A  third  way  in  which  the  Unity  of  the  paragraph  may 
be  violated  is  by  the  introduction  of  digressions  and  irrele- 
vant matter.  The  paragraph-topic  should  be  kept  in  mind 
from  the  beginning  to  the  end.     Throughout  the  paragraph 


THE   PARAGRAPH  129 

the  writer  should  never  let  his  reader  lose  sight  of  the  one 
central  idea.  As  in  the  whole  composition,  he  should  allow 
no  digressions,  however  tempting,  to  lead  him  away  from 
the  main  track  of  his  thought.  He  should  rigidly  exclude 
all  irrelevant  matter.  In  short,  he  should  not  admit  into 
the  paragraph  a  single  sentence  or  a  single  clause  that 
does  not  help  to  explain  or  to  expand  or  to  enforce  the 
central  thought. 

3.  Selection.  — A  writer  should  select  with  care  his  ma- 
terial for  the  development  of  each  paragraph-topic.  The 
principle  of  Selection  must  be  applied  to  the  paragraph  no 
less  rigidly  than  to  the  whole  composition.  One  should  no 
more  think  of  putting  into  a  paragraph  everything  that  can 
be  said  about  a  given  topic  than  of  including  in  the  whole 
composition  all  that  it  is  possible  to  set  down  about  a  given 
subject.  The  material  selected  will  depend  upon  the  pur- 
pose of  the  writer  and  the  nature  of  the  subject.  Whatever 
is  necessary  and  valuable  for  one's  immediate  purpose 
should  be  included ;  whatever  is  unimportant  and  trivial 
should  be  left  out.  Especially  in  the  writing  of  narrative 
and  descriptive  paragraphs  is  the  learner  likely  to  err  in 
the  choice  of  fit  material.  Here  the  principle  of  Selection 
is  of  paramount  importance.  It  is  fatally  easy  for  the  in- 
experienced writer  to  clog  the  movement  of  his  story  with 
a  great  mass  of  descriptive  and  narrative  particulars.  Both 
obscurity  and  dulness  may  arise  from  too  great  fondness 
for  minute  details.  "  A  few  well-chosen  points  will  usually 
serve  better  than  the  mention  of  many  minute  and  unim- 
portant particulars."  What  to  omit  is  often  quite  as  impor- 
tant a  question  as  what  to  include. 

4.  Proportion.  —  The  principle  of  Proportion  requires 
that  each  paragraph  shall  have  space  enough  for  the  ade- 
quate presentation   of  the  central  thought.     Since  para- 


130  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

graph-topics  differ  in  extent  and  in  importance,  the  length 
of  paragraphs  will  vary  considerably,  and  no  rigid  rule 
can  be  given.  Except  in  narrative  writing,  it  is  hardly 
possible  to  make  a  satisfactory  paragraph  of  a  single  sen- 
tence. It  is  safe  to  say  that  a  paragraph  should  contain 
at  least  two  or  three  sentences.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
longest  paragraphs  in  the  work  of  our  best  writers  rarely 
contain  more  than  three  hundred  and  fifty  words.  "  The 
advantage  of  at  least  one  paragraph  indentation  on  almost 
every  page  of  a  printed  book  is  felt  by  every  reader." 

The  principle  of  Proportion  determines  also  how  much 
space  shall  be  given  to  each  of  the  various  facts,  ideas, 
details,  or  illustrations  introduced  for  the  purpose  of 
expanding  and  enforcing  the  central  thought  of  the  para- 
graph. As  in  the  whole  composition,  the  problem  of  pro- 
portion is  a  matter  of  relative  values.  Each  idea  should 
receive  an  amount  of  space  commensurate  with  its  impor- 
tance. The  nature  of  the  topic  and  the  purpose  of  the 
paragraph  will  usually  help  the  writer  to  solve  the  problem 
of  proportion.  He  should  remember  that  plain  facts  do 
not  require  a  lengthy  statement,  and  that  simple  things 
need  not  be  elaborately  illustrated. 

5.  Coherence.  —  In  the  paragraph,  as  in  the  whole  com- 
position, the  principle  of  Coherence  deals  with  the  order 
of  thought  or  the  sequence  of  ideas.  It  requires  that  the 
development  of  the  central  idea  of  the  paragraph  be 
orderly,  logical,  clear.  Since  a  paragraph  consists  of  a 
group  of  related  thoughts  all  bearing  upon  a  single  topic, 
the  writer  should  so  phrase  and  so  place  these  thoughts  as 
to  make  the  reader  see  their  relation  both  to  one  another 
and  to  the  paragraph-topic.  The  sentences  that  make  up 
a  paragraph  should  follow  one  another  in  logical  sequence. 
Each  sentence  must  be  in  its  proper  place.     The  reader  is 


THE   PARAGRAPH  131 

sure  to  be  confused  if  the  sentences  of  a  paragraph  are 
written  down  at  haphazard,  without  logical  law  or  order. 
There  should  be  no  gaps  in  the  continuity  of  the  thought. 
Any  break  in  the  thought  is  likely  to  produce  obscurity 
and  to  destroy  the  reader's  interest. 

In  the  opening  sentence  or  sentences  of  a  paragraph 
the  skilful  writer  will  not  only  give  the  reader  a  clear  no- 
tion of  the  topic  to  be  treated,  but  will  also  show  how  this 
topic  is  related  to  the  preceding  discussion.  The  logical 
connection  between  two  paragraphs  is  often  made  evident 
by  means  of  some  connecting  word,  phrase,  clause,  or  sen- 
tence. Sometimes,  however,  the  relation  is  so  clear  and 
close  as  to  be  readily  understood  without  the  use  of  any 
connecting  expression.  The  topic,  as  we  have  seen,  is 
usually  stated  in  so  many  words  at  the  beginning  of  the 
paragraph.  In  some  cases,  however,  especially  in  narra- 
tive writing,  the  paragraph-topic  may  be  implied  rather 
than  expressed.  Whether  the  central  idea  of  the  paragraph 
be  expressed  or  implied,  it  should  always  lie,  as  it  were, 
on  the  surface,  so  that  the  reader  will  have  no  difficulty  in 
seeing  what  the  pa^graph  is  about. 

The  principle  of  Coherence  binds  the  sentences  of  a 
paragraph  in  a  compact  and  consistent  whole.  Each  sen- 
tence grows  out  of  that  which  precedes,  and  leads  up  to 
that  which  follows.  This  is  true  no  matter  what  law  of 
association  determines  the  exact  order  of  thought.  The 
narrative  paragraph  will  naturally  follow  the  chronologi- 
cal order.  The  descriptive  paragraph  will  proceed  from 
the  near  to  the  remote,  or  from  some  object  of  prominence 
to  matters  of  detail.  The  expository  and  the  argumenta- 
tive paragraph  will  follow  an  order  of  thought  determined 
by  logical  processes.  In  every  case,  however,  there  will 
be  an  unbroken  "line  of  thought"  running  through  the 


-   132  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

paragraph.     If  a  paragraph  is  coherent,  the  thought  which 
it  develops  will  be  continuous  and  progressive. 

Not  only  should  the  writer  make  the  thought  of  each 
paragraph  coherent  and  consecutive,  but  he  should  also 
use  such  connecting  words  and  expressions  as  will  serve  to 
make  the  logical  relation  of  his  ideas  clear  to  the  reader. 
There  are  two  classes  of  words  used  for  the  purpose  of 
joining  the  thought  of  one  sentence  to  that  of  another. 
These  two  classes  of  words  are  conjunctions  and  words  of 
reference.  Some  of  the  most  common  conjunctions  and 
conjunctive  expressions  thus  used  to  show  the  relation 
between  two  sentences  are  however,  therefore,  thus,  also,  be- 
sides, moreover,  nevertheless,  accordingly,  consequently,  then, 
now,  yet,  hence,  as  a  result,  on  the  contrary,  on  the  other 
hand,  finally,  in  conclusion,  for  example,  for  instance,  first, 
secondly,  next,  again,  further.  The  student  should  be  per- 
fectly familiar  with  the  correct  use  of  these  and  of  like 
conjunctive  expressions.  The  most  common  words  of 
reference  are  the  personal  pronouns,  the  adjective  pro- 
nouns, and  certain  adverbs  of  time,  place,  and  manner. 
As  connecting  words  the  personal  pronouns  he,  she,  it,  and 
they,  and  the  adverbs  now,  then,  here,  there,  so,  thus,  are 
not  so  important  or  valuable  as  the  adjective  pronouns. 
This  and  that,  these  and  those,  are  used  more  frequently 
than  any  other  words  of  reference.  Other  adjective  pro- 
nouns in  common  use  are  such,  same,  some,  one,  all,  other, 
another.  As  to  the  use  of  these  words  of  reference, 
whether  they  be  personal  pronouns,  adjective  pronouns, 
or  adverbs,  a  word  of  caution  is  necessary.  Always  be 
sure  that  the  reference  is  absolutely  clear.  One  should 
never  be  afraid  to  repeat  whenever  repetition  is  necessary 
for  the  sake  of  clearness.  Especially  after  the  adjective 
pronouns  this,  that,  such,  etc.,  clearness  often  requires  the- 


THE   PARAGRAPH  1 33 

repetition  of  a  noun  or  the  use  of  some  synonymous  ex- 
pression. Thus  the  repetition  of  a  word  or  of  an  idea  may 
become  a  valuable  aid  to  coherence. 

Conjunctions  and  words  of  reference  are  the  ligaments 
of  thought.  They  join  one  sentence  to  another,  and  they 
serve  to  bind  the  sentences  of  a  paragraph  together.  To 
be  sure,  the  logical  sequence  of  ideas  may  sometimes  be  so 
clear  that  no  connectives  are  needed ;  but,  as  a  rule,  con- 
junctions and  adjective  pronouns  are  almost  indispensable 
aids  to  clearness.  When  accurately  used,  they  join  sen- 
tence to  sentence,  and  help  to  make  the  exact  relation  of 
thought  immediately  evident  to  the  reader.  The  following 
passage  is  cited  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  use  of 
conjunctions  and  reference-words  in  ordinary  prose :  — 

Different  occupations,  however,  differ  widely  in  the  character  of  their 
special  vocabularies.  In  trades  and  handicrafts,  and  other  vocations, 
like  farming  and  fishing,  that  have  occupied  great  numbers  of  men  from 
remote  times,  the  technical  vocabulary  is  very  old.  It  consists  largely 
of  native  words,  or  of  borrowed  words  that  have  worked  their  way  into 
the  very  fibre  of  our  language.  Hence,  though  highly  technical  in  many 
particulars,  these  vocabularies  are  more  familiar  in  sound,  and  more 
generally  understood,  than  most  other  technicalities.  The  special  dia- 
lects of  law,  medicine,  divinity,  and  philosophy  have  also,  in  their  older 
strata,  become  pretty  familiar  to  cultivated  persons,  and  have  contrib- 
uted much  to  the  popular  vocabulary.  Yet  every  vocation  still  pos- 
sesses a  large  body  of  technical  terms  that  remain  essentially  foreign, 
even  to  educated  speech.  And  the  proportion  has  been  much  in- 
creased in  the  last  fifty  years,  particularly  in  the  various  departments 
of  natural  and  political  science  and  in  the  mechanic  arts.  Here  new 
terms  are  coined  with  the  greatest  freedom,  and  abandoned  with  indif- 
ference when  they  have  served  their  turn.  Most  of  the  new  coinages 
are  confined  to  special  discussions,  and  seldom  get  into  general  litera- 
ture or  conversation.  Yet  no  profession  is  nowadays,  as  all  professions 
once  were,  a  close  guild.  The  lawyer,  the  physician,  the  man  of 
science,  the  divine,  associates  freely  with  his  fellow-creatures,  and  does 
not  meet  them  in  a  merely  professional  way.     Furthermore,  what  is 


134  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC 

called   "  popular  science "  makes   everybody  acquainted  with  modern 
views  and  recent  discoveries.1 

The  student  who  examines  the  foregoing  passage  will 
also  note  how  the  repetition  of  a  word  or  an  idea  sometimes 
serves  to  bind  two  sentences  more  closely  together.  In 
the  ninth  sentence,  for  instance,  the  phrase  "  most  of  the 
new  coinages"  is  clearly  a  repetition  of  the  idea  expressed 
by  "  new  terms  are  coined  "  in  the  preceding  sentence.  By 
such  repetition  the  thread  of  one  thought  is  interwoven,  so 
to  speak,  with  that  of  another. 

The  omission  of  connecting  words  and  the  lack  of  skill 
in  their  use  are  among  the  commonest  faults  of  young 
writers.  In  a  poorly  constructed  paragraph,  in  which  the 
writer  has  taken  no  pains  to  show  the  logical  relation  of 
his  thoughts,  "the  sentences  have  the  same  connection 
with  each  other  that  marbles  have  in  a  bag :  they  touch 
without  adhering." 2  Whenever  a  necessary  connecting 
word  is  omitted  between  two  sentences,  there  is  nothing  to 
hold  them  together,  and  consequently  they  seem  to  stand 
apart.  The  failure  to  use  connectives  is  sure  to  make 
one's  style  jerky  and  disjointed.  The  student  can  verify 
this  fact  for  himself  by  attempting  to  omit,  from  the 
passage  cited  above,  all  the  italicized  words.  The  loss  in 
smoothness  and  clearness  will  be  instantly  apparent. 

6.  Emphasis.  —  In  the  paragraph,  as  in  the  whole  theme, 
the  beginning  and  the  end  require  special  care.  As  these 
are  the  most  prominent  places  in  the  paragraph,  they  will 
readily  catch  the  reader's  eye.  At  the  beginning  and  the 
end  of  each  paragraph,  therefore,  the  writer  will  do  well  to 
place  those  thoughts  that  deserve  to  be  especially  empha- 

1  Greenough  and  Kittredge's  "  Words  and  their  Ways  in  English  Speech," 
page  42.  2  Coleridge's  "  Table  Talk." 


-     THE  PARAGRAPH  1 35 

sized.  Now,  generally,  the  most  important  thing  in  a  para- 
graph, especially  in  expository  and  argumentative  writing, 
is  the  statement  of  the  paragraph-topic.  Accordingly,  the 
topic-sentence  will  usually  stand  at  or  near  the  beginning 
of  the  paragraph.  It  is  the  writer's  business,  at  the  outset, 
to  give  the  reader  a  clear  understanding  of  the  paragraph- 
topic,  and  definitely  to  impress  this  topic  upon  the  reader's 
mind.  The  opening  sentence  will  therefore  usually  con- 
tain a  clear  and  striking  statement  of  the  central  thought 
of  the  paragraph.  To  this  statement  brevity  often  lends 
added  emphasis.  Tte  body  of  the  paragraph  will,  of  course, 
contain  explanations,  facts,  details,  illustrations,  —  what- 
ever, in  short,  is  needed  for  the  development  of  this  central 
thought.  The  last  sentence,  which,  like  the  first,  occupies 
an  emphatic  position,  will  contain  the  conclusion.  It  is 
often  convenient  and  desirable  to  put  in  the  closing  sen- 
tence a  brief  summary  of  the  whole  paragraph.  It  rarely 
happens,  however,  that  the  concluding  sentence  is  simply 
a  restatement  of  the  topic-sentence  ;  for  the  thought  of  a 
paragraph  does  not  move  in  a  circle,  but  is  progressive 
and  cumulative.  When  the  reader  comes  to  the  end  of 
a  paragraph,  he  feels  that  some  advance  has  been  made, 
that  some  conclusion  has  been  reached,  that  another  stage 
in  his  progress  has  been  finished.  The  whole  paragraph  has 
moved  steadily  toward  this  end.  The  concluding  sentence 
of  the  paragraph  is,  in  fact,  the  capstone  that  rounds  out 
the  whole  structure.  The  last  sentence,  then,  in  a  well- 
planned  paragraph  will  contain  an  emphatic  statement  of 
the  concluding  thought,  and  will  so  present  it  as  to  give 
the  reader  the  impression  that  he  has  completed  one 
definite  stage  in  his  progress. 

The  thought  of  a  paragraph,  it  has  just  been  said,  should 
be  progressive  and  cumulative.      In  the  ideal  paragraph 


136  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

each  sentence  advances  the  thought;  each  makes  a  defi- 
nite addition  to  what  has  gone  before ;  each  gives  a  new- 
stimulus  to  the  reader's  attention.  Thus  something  like  a 
climax  is  produced.  The  thought  steadily  advances  in  im- 
portance, in  force,  and  in  interest  until  the  end  is  reached. 
This  cumulative  and  progressive  development  of  a  topic  is 
well  illustrated  by  the  following  paragraph  :  — 

The  silent  captain  by  the  river,  still  holding  his  antagonist  fast  in  his 
capital,  had  now  shown,  by  the  end  of  March,  that  the  army  of  that 
antagonist  was  the  rebellion,  and  he  prepared  to  strike.  At  the  extreme 
left  of  his  line  the  sting  of  the  swift  and  fiery  Sheridan  struck  the 
enemy  first.  He  winced  and  suddenly  recoiled.  But  sharper  grew  the 
sting,  swifter  and  more  fiery,  until  the  word  came,  "  Sheridan  is  sweep- 
ing all  before  him  from  the  west  ! "  Then  the  genius  of  the  great  cap- 
tain, seconded  by  the  tireless  valor  of  his  soldiers,  lightened  all  along  the 
line,  struck  everywhere  at  once,  burst  over  the  enemy's  works,  crushed 
his  ranks,  forced  his  retreat,  and  at  the  same  moment  the  master, 
loosening  his  victorious  columns  in  pursuit,  checked  the  rebel  flight,  and 
overwhelmed  Lee  and  his  army  as  the  Red  Sea  engulfed  Pharaoh  and 
his  host.  So  opened  and  closed  the  great  campaign.  So  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac,  often  baffled,  struck  an  immortal  blow,  and  gave  the  right 
hand  of  fellowship  to  their  brethren  of  the  west.  So  the  silent  captain, 
when  all  his  lieutenants  had  secured  their  separate  fame,  put  on  the 
crown  of  victory  and  ended  civil  war.1 

7.  Variety.  —  The  student  of  style  soon  discovers  that 
there  is  much  variety  in  the  structure  of  paragraphs.  This 
variety  arises  partly  from  the  inherent  difference  in  the 
nature  of  subjects.  The  four  different  kinds  of  composi- 
tion —  exposition,  argumentation,  description,  and  narration 
—  have  in  fact  given  rise  to  certain  kinds  of  paragraphs 
which  may  be  regarded  as  typical.  To  be  convinced  of 
this  fact,  the  student  has  only  to  compare  the  paragraph- 
ing of  a  text-book  with  that  of  a  novel.     The  writer  of  the 

1  Taken  from  an  address  which  George  William  Curtis  delivered  at  West  Point, 
New  York,  October  21, 1868. 


THE   PARAGRAPH  1 37 

text-book  and  the  novelist,  he  will  find,  do  not  follow 
exactly  the  same  principle  of  paragraph  division,  and  do  not 
attempt  to  develop  their  paragraphs  by  precisely  the  same 
methods.  This  difference  in  paragraphing  and  in  the 
methods  of  amplifying  paragraph-topics  is  due  to  the 
essential  difference  in  the  nature  of  the  subjects.  Further, 
even  within  the  limits  of  the  same  composition,  different 
topics  will  have  to  be  developed  in  different  ways.  The 
plan  and  purpose  of  the  writer,  as  well  as  the  nature  of  the 
topic  to  be  discussed,  will  have  much  to  do  with  his  choice 
of  method.  In  one  case  he  will  have  to  prove  a  proposi- 
tion. In  another  he  will  have  to  explain  a  general  truth. 
In  still  another  he  will  have  to  show  how  a  given  cause  has 
produced  certain  effects.  Sometimes  he  will  aim  to  make 
his  thought  more  clear  by  means  of  comparison,  illustra- 
tion, or  example.  At  another  time  he  will  make  an  event 
or  a  scene  or  a  general  statement  more  vivid  by  the  use  of 
suggestive  details.  Again,  he  will  perhaps  wish  to  enforce 
his  thought  by  means  of  repetition  or  contrast.  In  actual 
practice  he  will  often  combine  several  of  these  methods  in 
the  composition  of  a  single  paragraph.  To  the  thoughtful 
writer,  in  short,  each  paragraph  presents  a  separate  prob- 
lem in  structure,  in'sejection,  and  in  proportion.  There  is 
therefore  little  excuse  for  making  all  paragraphs  of  about 
the  same  length,  and  still  less  excuse  for  making  them  all, 
so  to  speak,  after  the  same  pattern.  There  are,  indeed,  dif- 
ferent types  of  paragraphs,  just  as  there  are  different  kinds 
of  sentences ;  and  the  writer  who  does  not  wish  to  weary 
his  reader  will  do  well  to  vary  both  the  length  and  the 
structure  of  his  paragraphs.  That  the  student  may  receive 
some  hints  as  to  the  various  ways  in  which  a  paragraph- 
topic  may  be  developed,  the  next  chapter  has  been  given 
to  a  discussion  of  the  different  methods  of  amplification. 


138  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

8.  Summary.  —  A  paragraph  consists  of  a  series  of  sen- 
tences all  bearing  upon  a  single  central  thought  or  topic. 
Although  a  paragraph  may  be  a  complete  composition  on 
some  narrowly  restricted  subject,  it  more  commonly  forms 
only  a  part  of  a  larger  whole.  The  paragraph  is,  from  its 
very  nature,  a  unit.  It  should  contain  all  that  a  writer  has 
to  say  about  one  particular  subdivision  of  his  subject.  One 
should  therefore  be  on  his  guard  against  allowing  himself 
to  digress  from  the  paragraph-topic,  and  against  putting 
into  a  paragraph  either  more  or  less  than  belongs  to  the 
development  of  one  main  idea.  The  selection  of  material 
and  the  apportionment  of  space  will  be  determined  by  the 
purpose  of  the  writer  and  by  the  nature  of  the  paragraph- 
topic.  A  writer  should  select  with  care  the  various  facts, 
ideas,  details,  and  examples  to  be  used  in  amplifying  his 
paragraph-topic,  and  should  give  to  each  of  these  an 
amount  of  space  in  proportion  to  its  importance.  The 
principle  of  Cohere  ce  requires  that  the  thought  of  a 
paragraph  advance  logically  from  the  beginning  to  the 
end,  and  that  connectives  and  words  of  reference  be  used 
to  indicate  the  relation  that  exists  between  successive  sen- 
tences. A  regard  for  Emphasis  will  lead  the  writer  to 
make  the  most  of  the  beginning  and  the  end,  the  two 
strategic  points  of  the  paragraph.  The  beginning  intro- 
duces the  paragraph-topic ;  and  it  should  tell  the  reader, 
in  a  clear  and  striking  way,  just  what  the  paragraph  is  to 
be  about.  The  last  sentence  should  give  the  writer's  con- 
cluding thought  on  the  topic.  The  thought  of  the  whole 
paragraph  should,  so  far  as  possible,  be  progressive  and 
cumulative,  so  as  to  produce  an  effect  of  climax.  Finally, 
one  should  not  fall  into  the  error  of  making  all  his  para- 
graphs alike,  but  should  seek  variety  both  in  length  and  in 
structure. 


THE   PARAGRAPH  139 


EXERCISES 

I.  Write  a  theme  on  one  of  the  subjects  found  in  List  V,  Appendix 
E,  or  on  some  subject  suggested  by  this  list. 

II.  Show  how  the  paragraphing  of  the  following  passages  may  be 
improved :  — 

1.  An  Engineer's  Dilemma 

Every  railroad  company  lays  down  certain  rules  for  the  guidance  of 
its  engineers. 

■  Some  of  these  rules  often  place  an  engineer  in  a  difficult  position ;  for 
he  is  liable  to  get  into  trouble  either  by  obeying  or  by  disobeying  them. 

For  instance,  one  of  the  tules  of  the  Philadelphia  Division  of  the  R 

Railroad  requires  its  engineers  to  approach  a  certain  crossing  on  its 
road  with  their  trains  running  at  a  rate  of  speed  not  exceeding  six  miles 
an  hour. 

Just  beyond  this  crossing  is  a  steep  grade,  the  top  of  which  cannot 
be  reached  by  an  ordinary  freight  train  unless  it  runs  at  a  speed  much 
higher  than  that  allowed  by  the  rule. 

Engineers  who  strictly  obey  this  rule  find  it  impossible  to  get  their 
trains  over  the  hill.  If  this  failure  is  repeated  several  times,  the  delin- 
quent engineer  is  taken  off  this  "  run,"  because,  as  the  Company  puts 
it,  he  is  "unable  to  do  the  work."  The  engineer's  only  way  out  of 
this  difficulty  is  to  violate  the  rule  and  get  his  train  over  the  steep  place 
in  the  road. 

But  here  he  is  again  in  trouble,  for  if  an  accident  were  to  happen,  he 
will  be  held  responsible,  because  he  has  violated  one  of  the  Company's 
rules. 

One  of  the  rules  of  the  W Railroad  requires  that  the  engineers 

of  passenger  trains  on  its  division  shall  approach  South  Street  with 
their  trains  completely  under  control. 

And  yet  if  they  do  this,  their  trains  are  sure  to  arrive  at  the  terminal 
station  a  few  minutes  late.  Here  the  engineer  is  once  more  in  trouble, 
for  he  must  account  for  every  minute  of  time  lost  during  the  trip. 

Although  this  rule  requires  a  reduction  of  speed,  the  schedule  makes 
no  allowance  for  lost  time.  Apparently  the  engineer's  only  way  out 
of  the  difficulty  is  to  violate  the  rule. 

But  if  an  accident  should  occur,  the  engineer  is  again  at  fault,  for  he 
has  run  contrary  to  a  rule  of  the  Company. 


140  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

Throughout  the   Philadelphia  yards  of  the  R Railroad,  trains 

are  frequently  run  eastward  on  a  west-bound  track  on  oral  orders 
from  a  yard-master.  Of  course,  in  this  case,  an  engineer  is  not 
obliged  to  obey  an  oral  order;  for  according  to  the  rules  of  the 
Company  all  orders  must  be  given  in  writing  under  the  signature  of 
the  superintendent. 

Yet  as  an  engineer  who  is  engaged  in  yard  work  finds  it  necessary  to 
make  such  a  run  many  times  in  a  single  night,  he  usually  does  so  on 
a  mere  oral  order  from  the  yard-master.  Naturally  he  does  not  wish 
to  have  the  yard-master  telegraph  to  the  superintendent  every  time  he 
desires  to  make  a  movement. 

Yet  if  he  should  meet  with  an  accident  while  running  under  oral 
orders,  he  is  to  blame,  for  the  book  of  rules  prohibits  this  very  thing. 

These  considerations  show  that  the  minor  rules  of  a  railroad  com- 
pany are  devised  mainly  for  its  own  protection,  and  not  for  that  of  the 
engineer. 

They  frequently  place  the  engineer  in  a  difficult  and  embarrassing 
position,  for  he  does  not  know  whether  to  obey  them  or  not. 

2.   Some  Sound  Principles  of  Taxation 

The  right  of  a  state  to  tax  its  citizens  rests  upon  its  sovereign  power 
to  control,  within  constitutional  limits,  all  persons  and  things  within  its 
territory.  This  right  must  be  exercised  for  the  common  good,  and 
nothing  more  be  taken  from  the  people  than  their  good  demands. 
Frugality  is  as  essential  for  a  state  as  for  an  individual,  and  extravagant 
public  expenditure  is  sure  to  demoralize  the  people,  discourage  industry, 
and  diminish  the  wealth  of  the  country.  On  the  other  hand,  so  far  as 
public  expenditure  tends  to  encourage  the  industry,  promote  the  wealth, 
and  develop  the  intelligence  of  the  people,  it  is  a  blessing,  and  taxa- 
tion is  to  this  extent  a  necessity.  The  system  of  taxation  may 
be  unjust  and  even  ruinous  when  the  amount  is  not  excessive.  In 
regard  to  this,  the  most  important  part  of  the  subject,  Americans  seem 
to  be  both  careless  and  ignorant.  I  looked  through  a  large  public 
library  in  the  city  of  Boston  to-day  without  finding  a  single  book  by  an 
American  author  devoted  to  this  subject.  Yet  here  is  the  true  field  of 
social  science  and  genuine  statesmanship.  I  venture  to  specify  a  few 
important  principles  under  this  head.  The  system  should  be  perma- 
nent.    Constant  changes  are  fatal  to  prosperity.     This  has  long  been 


THE   PARAGRAPH  141 

one  of  the  most  serious  difficulties  in  the  United  States,  especially  in 
regard  to  indirect  taxation.  No  one  can  tell  what  absurdities  a  new 
Congress  may  bring  forth,  and  our  House  of  Representatives  is  renewed 
every  two  years.  Business  is  constantly  disturbed  by  the  fear  of  new 
interpretations  of  existing  laws.  Another  fundamental  principle  is 
equality  in  the  distribution  of  taxation.  It  should  reach  all  classes  of 
people  and  all  kinds  of  property  alike,  without  unjust  discrimination  in 
favor  of  any.  The  application  of  this  principle  involves  many  of  the 
most  difficult  of  social  problems.  We  may  even  question  as  to  what 
equality  means.  For  example,  it  may  be  said  that  it  is  easier  for  a  man 
with  an  income  of  five  thousand  dollars  to  pay  a  tax  of  ten  per  cent  than 
for  a  man  with  an  income  of  five  hundred  dollars  to  pay  a  tax  of  five  per 
cent ;  that  equality  demands  this  difference.  On  the  other  hand,  if  this 
idea  were  accepted,  we  might  go  still  farther  and  exempt  all  except  the 
rich  from  taxation.  The  same  question  comes  up  in  regard  to  revenue 
derived  from  import  duties.  Shall  we  tax  only  those  articles  used  by 
the  rich  ?  The  application  of  the  principle  of  equality  is  difficult,  but 
the  neglect  of  it  is  subversive  of  civil  liberty.  Unequal  taxation  has 
always  been  characteristic  of  despotic  and  barbarous  governments.  It 
is  the  curse  of  the  East,  where  the  burden  of  taxation  is  borne  chiefly 
by  the  agriculturist,  and  where  the  rich  generally  escape.  In  the  United 
States  the  tendency  is  in  the  other  direction  —  to  favor  the  poor  at  the 
expense  of  the  rich.  Certain  kinds  of  property  are  also  exempted 
from  all  taxation.  In  some  places  all  personal  property  is  exempt. 
All  property  in  government  bonds  is  exempt.  Generally  churches, 
schools,  and  benevolent  institutions  are  not  taxed.  On  the  other 
hand,  excessive  taxes  are  levied  on  banks  and  corporations  generally. 
Another  fundamental,  principal  is  publicity.  This  is  the  greatest 
safeguard  against  inequality  and  injustice.  Too  great  publicity  can- 
not be  given  to  the  amount  of  tax  assessed  upon  each  individual  in 
the  community.  In  this  respect  there  is  nothing  more  to  be  desired 
in  the  United  States,  and  this  is  the  one  thing  which  has  compensated 
to  a  considerable  extent  for  the  general  ignorance  of  other  important 
principles.  Everything  in  regard  to  the  taxes  is  made  public.  Every 
man  can  compare  his  own  pftsition  with  that  of  his  neighbor,  and 
if  he  can  show  any  inequality  he  has  public  opinion  on  his  side  in 
demanding  redress.  The  same  publicity  is  given  to  every  item  of 
public  expenditure,  so  that  if  there  is  extravagance,  it  is  the  fault  of 
the  people  themselves. 


142  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

III.  Criticise  and  discuss  the  way  in  which  the  principles  of  Unity, 
Selection,  Coherence,  Proportion,  Emphasis,  and  Variety  have  been 
applied  to  the  paragraph  structure  of  the  following  themes :  — 

i.  "  Some  Places  of  Interest  near  my  Home,"  on  page  63. 

2.  "  How  Flour  is  Made,"  on  page  85. 

3.  "  Oriole  Cave,"  on  page  86. 

4.  "Factory  Legislation  in  England,"  on  page  106. 


CHAPTER   XII 
THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH 

The  literature  of  thought,  that  is,  explanatory  and  argu- 
mentative writing,  in  which  paragraph  structure  is  usually 
found  at  its  best,  offers  the  student  the  best  illustrations  of 
the  various  ways  in  which  the  central  thought  of  a  para- 
graph may  be  developed.  It  will  be  worth  his  while  to 
study  the  various  methods  of  amplification.  The  following 
are  some  of  the  commonest  methods  of  expanding  a  topic- 
sentence  into  a  paragraph.1 

I.  One  method  of  amplifying  a  paragraph-topic  is  by 
means  of  repetition.  The  main  idea  is  expressed  in  dif- 
ferent ways.  The  central  thought  is  held  up,  as  it  were, 
and  viewed  in  various  lights.  The  writer  helps  the  reader 
to  see  its  different  aspects.  By  looking  at  an  idea  in  differ- 
ent lights  and  by  seeing  it  in  all  its  bearings,  one  can 
enlarge  and  expand  the  central  thought  of  a  paragraph. 
By  repetition,  of  course,  is  not  meant  the  mere  iteration  of 
the  same  words  or  of  the  same  idea.  The  kind  of  repeti- 
tion which  best  contributes  to  the  development  of  a  para- 
graph-topic always  brings  with  it  some  distinct  addition  to 
the  thought.  When  used  by  a  skilful  writer,  this  kind  of 
repetition  may  become  one  of  the  most  effective  means  of 
developing  and  enforcing  the  central  idea  of  a  paragraph. 
An  example  or  two  will  serve  to  illustrate  how  this  method 

1  For  some  suggestions  used  in  this  chapter  the  author  is  especially  indebted  to 
Scott  and  Denney's  "Composition-Rhetoric,"  Chapter  III. 

143 


144  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

is  used.  In  Chapter  IX  of  this  book  the  second  para- 
graph (page  89)  is  amplified  by  means  of  repetition.  The 
following  paragraph  is  another  example  of  the  use  of  this 
method :  — 

This  vigorous  vitality  which  underlies  the  Elizabethan  drama  is 
essentially  mundane.  To  it  all  that  is  upon  this  earth  is  real ;  and  it 
does  not  concern  itself  greatly  about  the  reality  of  other  things.  Of 
heaven  or  hell  it  has  no  power  to  sing.  It  finds  such  and  such  facts 
here  and  now,  and  does  not  invent  or  discover  supernatural  causes  to 
explain  the  facts.  It  pursues  man  to  the  moment  of  death,  but  it  pur- 
sues him  no  farther.  If  it  confesses  "  the  burden  of  the  mystery  "  of 
human  life,  it  does  not  attempt  to  lighten  that  burden  by  any  "  Thus 
saith  the  Lord "  which  cannot  be  verified  or  attested  by  actual  experi- 
ence. If  it  contains  a  divine  element,  the  divine  is  to  be  looked  for  in 
the  human,  not  apart  from  the  human.  It  knows  eternity  only  through 
time,  which  is  a  part  of  eternity.1 

The  first  sentence  of  this  paragraph  states  the  thought 
quite  simply.  The  next  repeats  and  explains  the  idea 
expressed  by  the  phrase  "  essentially  mundane."  In  the 
third  the  thought  of  the  first  two  is  repeated  and  made 
more  explicit.  The  fourth  sentence  is,  in  like  manner,  both 
a  repetition  and  an  outgrowth  of  all  that  precedes  it.  The 
same  method  is  followed  throughout  the  rest  of  the  para- 
graph. All  the  succeeding  sentences,  by  showing  the 
attitude  of  the  Elizabethan  drama  toward  human  life, 
repeat  and  enforce  the  idea  stated  at  the  outset. 

2.  Another  way  in  which  a  writer  may  develop  a  para- 
graph-topic is  by  comparing  one  idea  or  thing  with  another. 
The  mind  naturally  seeks  and  dwells  upon  points  of  like- 
ness. Some  analogy  or  similarity  furnishes  the  writer  with 
a  convenient  means  of  explaining  and  expanding  an  idea. 

1  Edward  Dowden's  "  Shakspere :  A  Critical  Study  of  his  Mind  and  Art," 
page  23. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH      145 

One  can  often  help  others  to  understand  a  given  fact  or 
idea  if  he  compares  it  with  something  else  that  they  are 
already  familiar  with.  Thus  what  we  already  know  helps 
us  to  apprehend  new  ideas.1  The  following  example  illus- 
trates how  this  method  is  used  in  amplifying  a  paragraph- 
topic  :  — 

Ariosto  tells  a  pretty  story  of  a  fairy,  who,  by  some  mysterious  law 
of  her  nature,  was  condemned  to  appear  at  certain  seasons  in  the  form 
of  a  foul  and  poisonous  snake.  Those  who  injured  her  during  the 
period  of  her  disguise  were  forever  excluded  from  participation  in  the 
blessings  which  she  bestowed.  But  to  those  who,  in  spite  of  her 
loathsome  aspect,  pitiec^  and  protected  her,  she  afterward  revealed 
herself  in  the  beautiful  and  celestial  form  which  was  natural  to  her, 
accompanied  their  steps,  granted  all  their  wishes,  filled  their  houses 
with  wealth,  made  them  happy  in  love  and  victorious  in  war.  Such  a 
spirit  is  Liberty.  At  times  she  takes  the  form  of  a  hateful  reptile.  She 
grovels,  she  hisses,  she  stings.  But  woe  to  those  who  in  disgust  shall 
venture  to  crush  her !  And  happy  are  those  who,  having  dared  to 
receive  her  in  her  degraded  and  frightful  shape,  shall  at  length  be 
rewarded  by  her  in  the  time  of  her  beauty  and  her  glory.2 

The  value  of  this  method  of  building  up  a  paragraph 
is  well  exemplified  by  the  foregoing  passage.  Without 
some  such  device  ^e  author  could  hardly  have  made  his 
thought  clear.  The  first  three  sentences  tell  the  story  of 
the  fairy  in  order  that,  in  the  rest  of  the  paragraph,  the 
spirit  of  liberty  may  be  compared  to  her. 

Another  example  ,may  be  useful  in  illustrating  this 
method  of  amplification.  In  the  following  paragraph  the 
first  sentence  states  the  topic  in  the  form  of  a  metaphor, 
—  "literature  is  the  brain  of  humanity."  The  remaining 
sentences  explain  and  elaborate  this  comparison.  Thus 
the  whole  paragraph  is  built  up  on  an  analogy :  — 

1  See  the  author's  discussion  of  the  laws  of  association  in  Chapter  VIII, 
page  67.  2  Macaulay's  "  Essay  on  Milton." 


146  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

In  conclusion,  literature  is  the  brain  of  humanity.  Just  as  in  the 
individual  the  brain  preserves  a  record  of  his  previous  sensations,  of  his 
experience,  and  of  his  acquired  knowledge,  and  it  is  in  the  light  of  this 
record  that  he  interprets  every  fresh  sensation  and  experience,  so  the 
race  at  large  has  a  record  of  its  past  in  literature,  and  it  is  in  the  light 
of  this  record  alone  that  its  present  conditions  and  circumstances  can 
be  understood.  The  message  of  the  senses  is  indistinct  and  valueless 
to  the  individual  without  the  cooperation  of  the  brain  ;  the  life  of  the  race 
would  be  degraded  to  a  mere  animal  existence  without  the  accumulated 
stores  of  previous  experience  which  literature  places  at  its  disposal.1 

3.  A  writer  may  also  amplify  a  paragraph-topic  by  con- 
trasting one  idea  or  thing  with  another.  We  are  often 
able  to  form  a  clearer  notion  of  a  given  thing  if  we  under- 
stand just  how  it  differs  from  some  familiar  object.  Cer- 
tain facts  stand  out  in  stronger  relief  when  they  are 
contrasted  with  other  facts.  Thus  this  method  helps  both 
to  explain  and  to  enforce  the  central  idea  of  a  paragraph. 
The  following  passage  exemplifies  this  method  of  amplifi- 
cation :  — 

The  catastrophe  of  this  splendid  drama  is  at  hand.  What  actors 
are  met !  Two  races,  that  of  merchants  and  mariners,  that  of  laborers 
and  soldiers;  two  nations,  the  one  dominant  by  gold,  the  other  by 
steel ;  two  republics,  the  one  theocratic,  the  other  aristocratic.  Rome 
and  Carthage!  Rome  with  her  army,  Carthage  with  her  fleet;  Car- 
thage, old,  rich,  and  crafty,  —  Rome,  young,  poor,  robust ;  the  past  and 
the  future  ;  the  spirit  of  discovery  and  the  spirit  of  conquest ;  the  genius 
of  commerce  and  the  demon  of  war ;  the  East  and  South  on  one  side, 
the  West  and  North  on  the  other;  in  short,  two  worlds,  —  the  civiliza- 
tion of  Africa  and  the  civilization  of  Europe.2 

This  contrast  between  Rome  and  Carthage  helps  to  give 
the  reader  a  vivid  notion  of  the  "  splendid  drama  "  which 
is  about  to  be  enacted.     In  thus  contrasting  two  ideas  or 

1  W.  Basil  Worsfold's  "  Judgment  in  Literature,"  page  15. 

2  Victor  Hugo's  "  Fragment  d'Histoire." 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   THE  PARAGRAPH  147 

things  a  writer  will  often  make,  in  the  first  part  of  the 
paragraph,  a  full  statement  and  explanation  of  one  idea. 
Then  the  contrasted  idea  is  introduced  and  emphasized  by 
some  such  connective  as  but,  however,  nevertheless,  yet,  o?i 
the  co?itrary,  on  the  other  hand. 

4.  Again,  one  may  develop  a  paragraph-topic  by  telling 
first  what  a  thing  is  not,  and  the?i  what  it  is.  This  method 
is  sometimes  called  "obverse  iteration."  A  writer  may 
explain  an  idea  by  showing  not  only  what  does,  but  also 
what  does  not  belong  to  it.  Both  sides  are  given.  By 
this  means  one  is  able  to  define  an  idea  by  marking  out 
its  exact  boundaries*  The  reader,  after  learning  what 
characteristics  a  given  thing  does  not  possess,  is  often 
better  prepared  to  understand  its  distinctive  character  and 
qualities.  This  method  of  amplification  closely  resembles 
the  use  of  contrast.  Both  methods  are  valuable  in 
enforcing  as  well  as  in  explaining  an  idea.  The  fol- 
lowing example  illustrates  this  method  of  developing  a 
topic :  — 

The  proposition  is  peace.  Not  peace  through  the  medium  of  war; 
not  peace  to  be  hunted  through  the  labyrinth  of  intricate  and  endless 
negotiations  ;  not  peace *o  arise  out  of  universal  discord  fomented  from 
principle  in  all  parts  of  the  empire  ;  not  peace  to  depend  on  the  juridical 
determinations  of  perplexing  questions,  or  the  precise  marking  the 
shadowy  boundaries  of  a  complex  government.  It  is  simple  peace, 
sought  in  its  natural  course  and  in  its  ordinary  haunts.  It  is  peace 
sought  in  the  spirit  of  peace,  and  laid  in  principles  purely  pacific.  I 
propose,  by  removing  the  ground  of  the  difference,  and  by  restoring 
the  former  unsuspecting  confidence  of  the  colonies  in  the  mother 
country,  to  give  permanent  satisfaction  to  your  people ;  and  (far  from 
a  scheme  of  ruling  by  discord)  to  reconcile  them  to  each  other  in  the 
same  act  and  by  the  bond  of  the  very  same  interest  which  reconciles 
them  to  British  government.1      % 

l  Burke's  "  Speech  on  Conciliation  with  the  American  Colonies." 


148  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

In  this  paragraph  the  topic-sentence  is,  "  The  proposition 
is  peace."  Next  follows  a  statement  which  sets  forth  what 
peace  is  not  meant.  The  second  half  of  the  paragraph, 
beginning  with  "  It  is  simple  peace,"  then  explains  what 
peace  is  meant. 

5.  A  further  method  of  amplifying  a  paragraph-topic  is 
based  upon  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect.  A  cause  is  first 
stated,  and  its  effects  or  consequences  are  then  given. 
Occasionally  this  order  is  reversed :  the  effects,  results, 
or  consequences  are  given  first,  and  these  lead  up  to  the 
cause  that  produced  them,  to  the  reason  that  explains 
them.  In  either  case  the  method  is  the  same.  Careful 
study  of  the  following  example  will  enable  the  student  to 
understand  this  method  of  constructing  a  paragraph  :  — 

The  general  social  system  was  one  of  individual  freedom  without 
individual  responsibility.  This  is  plainly  a  habit  of  the  frontier.  Widely 
scattered  groups  of  individuals,  removed  from  the  control  of  public  opin- 
ion, driven  by  necessity  to  act,  on  the  spur  of  the  moment,  for  and  by 
themselves,  naturally  develop  an  impatience  of  restraint,  social,  legal,  or 
moral,  that  is  handed  down  to  later  generations  as  a  social  tradition. 
For  this  reason  the  reign  of  law  has  never  been  thoroughly  and  fully 
established  in  this  country.  Popular  feelings  of  indignation  or  preju- 
dice against  certain  classes  of  offenders,  of  compassion  for  certain 
others,  are  always  pressing  upon  the  framework  of  law  to  bend  it  from 
its  fixed  pattern,  or  even  to  break  it  altogether,  as  in  the  numerous 
cases  of  lynching  reported  to  us  year  after  year.  It  need  not  be  shown 
in  detail  how  demoralizing  such  a  system  as  this  is  to  incoming  peoples. 
Not  only  law  but  morals  have  suffered  as  a  result  of  this  general  impa- 
tience of  restraint.  Where  each  man  depends  on  himself  wholly  to  say 
what  is  right  and  wrong,  where  he  is  so  separated  from  others  as  not 
to  know  or  care  what  they  think  of  him,  personal  interest  is  very  apt  to 
lead  him,  even  without  his  own  knowledge,  into  bad  ways.  This  cause 
is  seen  at  work  all  through  our  history,  and  to  it  may  be  attributed  some 
of  the  evils  we  are  so  ready  to  ascribe  to  the  immigrant.1 

1  Kate  Holloday  Claghorn,  in  The  Atlantic  Monthly,  October,  1900. 


DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE   PARAGRAPH  149 

The  first  sentence  of  this  paragraph  states  the  topic, — 
"individual  freedom  without  individual  responsibility." 
The  next  two  sentences  explain  how  this  "impatience 
of  restraint "  originated.  The  condition  thus  set  forth  in 
these  first  three  sentences  is  regarded  as  a  cause ;  and 
all  the  rest  of  the  paragraph,  from  the  phrase  "for  this 
reason  "  to  the  close,  treats  of  the  effects  that  have  been 
produced  by  this  cause,  not  only  upon  native  Americans, 
but  also  upon  immigrants.  Thus  the  paragraph  first  states 
a  social  condition,  which  is  looked  upon  as  a  cause,  and 
then  sets  forth  the  natural  consequences  that  have  resulted 
from  this  condition.  f 

6.  A  paragraph-topic  may  also  be  developed  by  means  of 
formal  proof  .  A  general  statement  is  usually  made  at  the 
beginning,  and  some  proof  of  this  proposition  is  presented 
in  the  sentences  that  follow.  This  method  of  amplification 
is  commonly  used  in  argumentative  writing.  The  following 
paragraph  will  serve  as  an  example :  — 

Brutes  are  able  to  compare  and  to  distinguish.  A  parrot  will  take 
up  a  nut  and  throw  it  down  again,  without  attempting  to  crack  it.  He 
has  found  that  it  is  light.  This  he  could  discover  only  by  comparing 
the  weight  of  the  good  nuts  with  that  of  the  bad.  And  he  has  found 
that  it  has  no  kernel.  This  he  could  discover  only  by  what  philosophers 
would  dignify  with  the  grand  title  of  syllogism  ;  namely,  "  all  light  nuts 
are  hollow  ;  this  is  a  light  nut ;  therefore,  this  nut  is  hollow." 1 

Here  the  proposition  to  be  established  is  stated  in  the  first 
sentence.  Then  follow  the  sentences  which  give  the  proof 
of  this  proposition. 

Sometimes  this  order  is  reversed  ;  the  proof  precedes  the 
proposition.  The  idea  and  purpose  of  the  paragraph  are 
thus  kept  in  suspense  until  the  end  is  reached;  and  the 

1  Max  Miiller's  "  Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Language,"  Lecture  IX. 


150  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

last  sentence,  instead  of  the  first,  states  the  paragraph- 
topic.     The  following  paragraph  is  an  example  :  — 

When  the  supply  of  anything  exceeds  the  demand  for  it,  each  person 
who  wishes  to  sell  the  particular  thing  will  be  afraid  that  his  stock  of  it 
will  be  the  portion  of  the  supply  which  the  demand  will  not  reach.  He 
will  therefore  put  down  his  prices  in  order  to  induce  buyers  to  take  his 
wares  instead  of  those  of  his  neighbor.  Each  seller  will  do  this  ;  con- 
sequently general  prices  will  fall.  If  there  is  a  demand  for  nine  brooms 
and  a  supply  of  ten,  each  broom-seller  will  fear  that  one  of  his  brooms 
will  be  left  on  his  hands.  To  prevent  this,  he  will  mark  down  his 
prices ;  therefore,  brooms  will  be  cheaper.  Hence  greater  production 
and  greater  cheapness  go  hand  in  hand.1 

In  this  paragraph  the  very  last  sentence  states  the  proposi- 
tion in  the  form  of  a  conclusion.  All  the  preceding  part 
of  the  paragraph  sets  forth  the  proof  and  prepares  the  way 
for  the  concluding  statement,  —  "  Hence  greater  production 
and  greater  cheapness  go  hand  in  hand." 

7.  Still  another  method  of  developing  a  paragraph-topic 
is  by  means  of  examples  or  specific  instances.  It  often  hap- 
pens that  only  a  single  specific  instance  is  cited  by  way  of 
illustration.  In  this  paragraph,  for  example,  and  in  each 
of  the  eight  paragraphs  that  precede  it,  a  single  example 
is  sufficient  to  explain  and  illustrate  the  paragraph-topic. 
The  central  thought  of  each  would  hardly  be  clear  with- 
out some  such  illustration.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  following 
paragraph,  which  illustrates  this  method  of  amplification, 
a  number  of  examples  are  cited  :  — 

There  are  many  other  illustrious  names  which  might  be  cited  to  prove 
the  truth  of  the  common  saying  that  "  it  is  never  too  late  to  learn." 
Even  at  advanced  years  men  can  do  much,  if  they  will  determine  on 
making  a  beginning.  Sir  Henry  Spelman  did  not  begin  the  study  of 
science  until  he  was  between  fifty  and  sixty  years  of  age.     Franklin  was 

1  Lalor  and  Mason's  "  Primer  of  Political  Economy."  Cited  in  Scott  and 
Denney's  "  Composition-Rhetoric,"  page  57. 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   PARAGRAPH  151 

fifty  before  he  fully  entered  upon  the  study  of  Natural  Philosophy. 
Dryden  and  Scott  were  not  known  as  authors  until  each  was  in  his 
fortieth  year.  Boccaccio  was  thirty-five  when  he  commenced  his  literary 
career,  and  Alfieri  was  forty-six  when  he  began  the  study  of  Greek. 
Dr.  Arnold  learned  German  at  an  advanced  age,  for  the  purpose  of 
reading  Niebuhr  in  the  original ;  and  in  like  manner  James  Watt,  when 
about  forty,  while  working  at  his  trade  of  an  instrument  maker  in 
Glasgow,  learned  French,  German,  and  Italian,  to  enable  himself  to 
peruse  the  valuable  works  on  mechanical  philosophy  which  existed  in 
those  languages.  Thomas  Scott  was  fifty-six  before  he  began  to  learn 
Hebrew.  Robert  Hall  was  once  found  lying  upon  the  floor,  racked  by 
pain,  learning  Italian  in  his  old  age,  to  enable  him  to  judge  of  the 
parallel  drawn  by  Macaulay  between  Milton  and  Dante.  Handel  was 
forty-eight  before  he  published  any  of  his  great  works.  Indeed  hun- 
dreds of  instances  migh*  be  given  of  men  who  struck  out  an  entirely 
new  path,  and  successfully  entered  on  new  studies,  at  a  comparatively 
advanced  time  of  life.  None  but  the  frivolous  or  the  indolent  will  say, 
"  I  am  too  old  to  learn."  l 

The  first  two  sentences  of  this  paragraph  state  the  topic. 
Then  eleven  examples  are  cited  in  support  of  the  state- 
ment "  it  is  never  too  late  to  learn."  After  these  instances 
have  been  given,  the  last  two  sentences  repeat  the  central 
idea  by  way  of  conclusion. 

8.  Finally,  one  of  the  commonest  methods  of  amplifying 
a  paragraph-topic  iM  first  to  make  a  general  statement,  and 
then  to  add  particular  facts  and  details.  Particularization 
serves  to  make  the  general  statement  more  clear,  more 
vivid,  more  impressive.  This  method  of  building  up  a 
paragraph  is  well  illustrated  by  the  following  example  :  — 

I  go  into  my  library,  and  all  history  unrolls  before  me.  I  breathe 
the  morning  air  of  the  world  while  the  scent  of  Eden's  roses  yet  lin- 
gered in  it,  while  it  vibrated  only  to  the  world's  first  brood  of  nightin- 
gales and  to  the  laugh  of  Eve.  I  see  the  pyramids  building.  I  hear 
the  shoutings  of  the  armies  of  Alexander.     I  feel  the  ground  shake 

1  Samuel  Smiles's  "  Self-Help,"  Chapter  XI. 


152  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

beneath  the  march  of  Cambyses.  I  sit  as  in  a  theatre,  —  the  stage  is 
time,  the  play  is  the  world.  What  a  spectacle  it  is  !  What  kingly 
pomp,  what  processions  file  past,  what  cities  burn  to  heaven,  what 
crowds  of  captives  are  dragged  at  the  chariot  wheels  of  conquerors  !  I 
hear  or  cry  "  Bravo ! "  when  the  great  actors  come  on,  shaking  the 
stage.  I  am  a  Roman  emperor  when  I  look  at  a  Roman  coin.  I  lift 
Homer,  and  I  shout  Achilles  in  the  trenches.  The  silence  of  the  em- 
peopled  Syrian  plains,  the  outcomings  and  ingoings  of  the  patriarchs, 
Abraham  and  Ishmael,  Isaac  in  the  field  at  eventide,  Rebekah  at  the 
well,  Jacobs  guile,  Esau's  face  reddened  by  desert  sun-heat,  Joseph's 
splendid  funeral  procession,  —  all  these  things  I  find  within  the  boards 
of  my  Old  Testament.1 

In  this  paragraph  the  first,  sentence  makes  the  general 
statement  "  all  history  unrolls  before  me."  All  the  rest  of 
the  paragraph  is  given  to  details.  Particular  events  and 
facts  are  mentioned,  and  the  images  of  particular  persons 
are  called  up,  in  order  to  vivify  and  enforce  this  general 
statement. 

This  method  of  amplification  is  frequently  used  in 
descriptive  writing.  In  fact,  the  typical  paragraph  of  de- 
scription may  be  said  to  proceed  from  the  general  to  the 
particular.  The  outline  of  the  object  or  scene  is  first 
drawn,  and  the  details  are  then  filled  in.  This  method  is 
exemplified  in  the  descriptive  passage  cited  on  page  72. 
The  following  example  also  illustrates  how  particular  iza- 
tion  is  used  in  building  up  a  descriptive  paragraph :  — 

When  he  entered  the  house  the  conquest  of  his  heart  was  complete. 
It  was  one  of  those  spacious  farmhouses,  with  high-ridged,  but  lowly 
sloping  roofs,  built  in  the  style  handed  down  from  the  first  Dutch  set- 
tlers ;  the  low  projecting  eaves  forming  a  piazza  along  the  front,  capa- 
ble of  being  closed  up  in  bad  weather.  Under  this  were  hung  flails, 
harness,  various  utensils  of  husbandry,  and  nets  for  fishing  in  the  neigh- 
boring river.  Benches  were  built  along  the  sides  for  summer  use  ;  and 
a  great  spinning-wheel  at  one  end,  and  a  churn  at  the  other,  showed  the 

1  Alexander  Smith. 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   PARAGRAPH  153 

various  uses  to  which  this  important  porch  might  be  devoted.  From 
this  piazza  the  wandering  Ichabod  entered  the  hall,  which  formed  the 
centre  of  the  mansion  and  the  place  of  usual  residence.  Here  rows  of 
resplendent  pewter,  ranged  on  a  long  dresser,  dazzled  his  eyes.  In  one 
corner  stood  a  huge  bag  of  wool  ready  to  be  spun ;  in  another,  a  quan- 
tity of  linsey-woolsey  just  from  the  loom.  Ears  of  Indian  corn  and 
strings  of  dried  apples  and  peaches  hung  in  gay  festoons  along  the 
wall,  mingled  with  the  gaud  of  red  peppers ;  and  a  door  left  ajar  gave 
him  a  peep  into  the  best  parlor,  where  the  claw-footed  chairs  and  dark 
mahogany  tables  shone  like  mirrors.  Andirons,  with  their  accompany- 
ing shovel  and  tongs,  glistened  from  their  covert  of  asparagus  tops. 
Mock-oranges  and  conch-shells  decorated  the  mantelpiece ;  strings  of 
various-colored  birds1  eggs  were  suspended  above  it;  a  great  ostrich 
egg  was  hung  from  the  centre  of  the  room ;  and  a  corner  cupboard, 
knowingly  left  open,  displayed  immense  treasures  of  old  silver  and 
well-mended  china.1      t 

This  same  method  of  particularization  is  also  commonly 
used  in  narrative  writing.  A  general  statement  of  the 
event  is  first  made,  and  then  all  the  narrative  details  are 
filled  in.  The  following  paragraph  shows  how  this  method 
may  be  used  in  narration  :  — 

I  made  a  laughable  mistake  this  morning  in  giving  alms.  A  man 
stood  on  the  shady  side  of  the  street  with  his  hat  in  his  hand,  and  as  I 
passed  he  gave  me  a  piteous  look,  though  he  said  nothing.  He  had 
such  a  woe-begone  face  and  such  a  threadbare  coat,  that  I  at  once  took 
him  for  one  of  those  meftdicants  who  bear  the  title  of  poveri  vergognosi, 
—  bashful  beggars ;  persons  whom  pinching  want  compels  to  receive 
the  stranger's  charity,  though  pride  restrains  them  from  asking  it. 
Moved  with  compassion,  I  threw  into  the  hat  the  little  I  had  to  give ; 
when,  instead  of  thanking  me  with  a  blessing,  my  man  with  the  thread- 
bare coat  showered  upon  me  the  most  sonorous  maledictions  of  his 
native  tongue,  and,  emptying  his  greasy  hat  upon  the  pavement,  drew 
it  down  over  his  ears  with  both  hands,  and  stalked  away  with  all  the 
dignity  of  a  Roman  senator  in  the  best  days  of  the  republic,  —  to  the 
infinite  amusement  of  a  green-grocer,  who  stood  at  his  shop-door 

1  Irving's  "  Sketch-Book  " ;  from  "  The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow." 


154  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

bursting  with  laughter.  No  time  was  given  me  for  an  apology  ;  but  I 
resolved  to  be,  for  the  future,  more  discriminating  in  my  charities,  and 
not  to  take  for  a  beggar  every  poor  gentleman  who  chose  to  stand  in 
the  shade  with  his  hat  in  his  hand  on  a  hot  summer's  day.1 

The  eight  methods  that  have  just  been  explained  are  the 
commonest  ways  of  developing  a  paragraph-topic.  From 
the  examples  that  have  been  cited  to  illustrate  these  typi- 
cal methods  it  is  evident  that  a  whole  paragraph  is  often 
built  up  by  one  single  method  of  amplification.  Fre- 
quently, however,  two  or  three  or  any  number  of  these 
methods  are  used  in  the  same  paragraph.  This  statement 
the  student  may  verify  for  himself  by  careful  study  of  the 
methods  of  paragraph  structure  used  in  any  piece  of  stand- 
ard prose.  It  is  worth  noting  that  the  various  combina- 
tions of  these  eight  methods  still  further  increase  the 
variety  ♦that  is  possible  in  paragraph  structure. 

All  that  has  so  far  been  said  of  the  principles  of  Compo- 
sition as  applied  to  the  paragraph,  and  of  the  different 
methods  of  amplification,  refers  particularly  to  what  may 
be  called  the  "  ideal  paragraph."  "  In  the  ideal  para- 
graph," says  Professor  W.  E.  Mead,  "there  is  (i)  a  sen- 
tence that  contains  the  topic  of  the  paragraph  ;  (2)  a  group 
of  sentences  amplifying  and  illustrating  this  topic ;  (3)  a 
concluding  sentence  that  ties  together  the  whole  of  the 
thought  of  the  paragraph.  This  ideal  scheme  cannot 
always  be  followed.  In  some  forms  of  composition,  as, 
for  instance,  narrative,  we  cannot  always  find  a  topic  that 
can  be  expanded  throughout  the  entire  paragraph.  Hence 
the  structure  of  the  paragraph  allows  much  freedom ;  and 
conformity  to  the  ideal  will  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the 
topic  treated." 

1  Longfellow's  "  Outre-Mer,"  page  248.  Quoted  in  Scott  and  Denney's  "  Com- 
position-Rhetoric," page  53. 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   PARAGRAPH  155 

The  narrative  paragraph,  in  fact,  only  rarely  conforms 
to  the  ideal.  Narrative  writing  is,  from  its  very  nature, 
perhaps  harder  to  paragraph  than  any  other  form  of  com- 
position. For  this  reason  it  will  be  worth  while  to  examine 
a  specimen  of  narration  with  a  view  to  finding  out  some- 
thing like  a  law  or  principle  of  paragraph  division.  The 
following  passage  from  Thackeray's  "  Henry  Esmond " 
will  serve  to  show  how  narrative  writing  is  paragraphed  :  — 

1 .  To  work  upon  the  faith  of  her  young  pupil,  Esmond's  kind  mis- 
tress sent  to  the  library  of  her  father  the  Dean,  who  had  been  distin- 
guished in  the  disputes  of  the  late  king's  reign ;  and,  an  old  soldier 
now,  had  hung  up  his  weapons  of  controversy.  These  he  took  down 
from  his  shelves  willingly  for  young  Esmond,  whom  he  benefited  by  his 
own  personal  advice  ana!  instruction.  It  did  not  require  much  persua- 
sion to  induce  the  boy  to  worship  with  his  beloved  mistress.  And  the 
good  old  non-juring  Dean  flattered  himself  with  a  conversion  which,  in 
truth,  was  owing  to  a  much  gentler  and  fairer  persuader. 

2.  Under  her  ladyship's  kind  eyes  (my  lord's  being  sealed  in  sleep 
pretty  generally),  Esmond  read  many  volumes  of  the  works  of  the 
famous  British  divines  of  the  last  age,  and  was  familiar  with  Wake  and 
Sherlock,  with  Stillingfleet  and  Patrick.  His  mistress  never  tired  to 
listen  or  to  read,  to  pursue  the  texts  with  fond  comments,  to  urge  those 
points  which  her  fancy  dwelt  on  most,  or  her  reason  deemed  most  im- 
portant. Since  the  death  of  her  father  the  Dean,  this  lady  had  admitted 
a  certain  latitude  of  theological  reading  which  her  orthodox  father  would 
never  have  allowed;  his* favorite  writers  appealing  more  to  reason  and 
antiquity  than  to  the  passions  or  imaginations  of  their  readers,  so  that 
the  works  of  Bishop  Taylor,  nay,  those  of  Mr.  Baxter  and  Mr.  Law, 
have  in  reality  found  more  favor  with  my  Lady  Castlewood  than  the 
severer  volumes  of  our  great  English  schoolmen. 

3.  In  later  life,  at  the  University,  Esmond  reopened  the  controversy, 
and  pursued  it  in  a  very  different  manner,  when  his  patrons  had  deter- 
mined for  him  that  he  was  to  embrace  the  ecclesiastical  life.  But  though 
his  mistress's  heart  was  in  this  calling,  his  own  never  was  much.  After 
that  first  fervor  of  simple  devotion  which  his  beloved  Jesuit  priest  had 
inspired  in  him,  speculative  theology  took  but  little  hold  upon  the 
young  man's  mind.     When  his  early  credulity  was  disturbed,  and  his 


156  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

saints  and  virgins  taken  out  of  his  worship,  to  rank  little  higher  than 
the  divinities  of  Olympus,  his  belief  became  acquiescence  rather  than 
ardor ;  and  he  made  his  mind  up  to  assume  the  cassock  and  bands,  as 
another  man  does  to  wear  a  breastplate  and  jack-boots,  or  to  mount  a 
merchant's  desk,  for  a  livelihood,  and  from  obedience  and  necessity, 
rather  than  from  choice.  There  were  scores  of  such  men  in  Mr.  Es- 
mond's time  at  the  universities,  who  were  going  to  the  church  with  no 
better  calling  than  his. 

4.  When  Thomas  Tusher  was  gone,  a  feeling  of  no  small  depression 
and  disquiet  fell  upon  young  Esmond,  of  which,  though  he  did  not  com- 
plain, his  kind  mistress  must  have  divined  the  cause  ;  for  soon  after  she 
showed  not  only  that  she  understood  the  reason  of  Harry's  melancholy, 
but  could  provide  a  remedy  for  it.  .  Her  habit  was  thus  to  watch,  unob- 
servedly,  those  to  whom  duty  or  affection  bound  her,  and  to  prevent 
their  designs,  or  to  fulfil  them,  when  she  had  the  power.  It  was  this 
lady's  disposition  to  think  kindnesses  and  devise  silent  bounties,  and  to 
scheme  benevolence,  for  those  about  her.  We  take  such  goodness,  for 
the  most  part,  as  if  it  was  our  due ;  the  Marys  who  bring  ointment  for 
our  feet  get  but  little  thanks.  Some  of  us  never  feel  this  devotion  at 
all,  or  are  moved  by  it  to  gratitude  or  acknowledgment ;  others  only 
recall  it  years  after,  when  the  days  are  passed  in  which  those  sweet 
kindnesses  were  spent  on  us,  and  we  offer  back  our  return  for  the  debt 
by  a  poor  tardy  payment  of  tears.  Then  forgotten  tones  of  love  recur 
to  us,  and  kind  glances  shine  out  of  the  past  —  oh  so  bright  and  clear ! 
—  oh  so  longed  after  !  —  because  they  are  out  of  reach :  as  holiday 
music  from  within-side  a  prison  wall,  or  sunshine  seen  through  the 
bars;  more  prized  because  unattainable,  more  bright  because  of  the 
contrast  of  present  darkness  and  solitude,  whence  there  is  no  escape. 

5.  All  the  notice,  then,  which  Lady  Castlewood  seemed  to  take  of 
Harry  Esmond's  melancholy,  upon  Tom  Tusher's  departure,  was,  by  a 
gayety  unusual  to  her,  to  attempt  to  dispel  his  gloom.  She  made  his 
three  scholars  (herself  being  the  chief  one)  more  cheerful  than  ever 
they  had  been  before,  and  more  docile  too,  all  of  them  learning  and 
reading  much  more  than  they  had  been  accustomed  to  do.  "  For  who 
knows,"  said  the  lady,  "  what  may  happen,  and  whether  we  may  be  able 
to  keep  such  a  learned  tutor  long  ?  " 

6.  Frank  Esmond  said  he  for  his  part  did  not  want  to  learn  any 
more,  and  cousin  Harry  might  shut  up  his  book  whenever  he  liked,  if 
he  would  come  out  a-fishing ;  and  little  Beatrix  declared  she  would  send 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH     1 57 

for  Tom  Tusher,  and  he  would  be  glad  enough  to  come  to  Castlewood, 
if  Harry  chose  to  go  away. 

7.  At  last  comes  a  messenger  from  Winchester  one  day,  bearer  of  a 
letter,  with  a  great  black  seal,  from  the  Dean  there,  to  say  that  his  sister 
was  dead,  and  had  left  her  fortune  of  ^2,000  among  her  six  nieces,  the 
Dean's  daughters ;  and  many  a  time  since  has  Harry  Esmond  recalled 
the  flushed  face  and  eager  look  wherewith,  after  this  intelligence,  his 
kind  lady  regarded  him.  She  did  not  pretend  to  any  grief  about  the 
deceased  relative,  from  whom  she  and  her  family  had  been  many  years 
parted. 

8.  When  my  lord  heard  of  the  news,  he  also  did  not  make  any  very 
long  face.  "  The  money  will  come  very  handy  to  furnish  the  music- 
room  and  the  cellar,  which  is  getting  low,  and  buy  your  ladyship  a 
coach  and  a  couple  of  horses  that  will  do  indifferent  to  ride  or  for  the 
coach.  And,  Beatrix,  jou  shall  have  a  spinnet;  and,  Frank,  you  shall 
have  a  little  horse  from  Hexton  Fair ;  and,  Harry,  you  shall  have  five 
pounds  to  buy  some  books,"  said  my  lord,  who  was  generous  with  his 
own,  and  indeed  with  other  folks1  money.  "  I  wish  your  aunt  would  die 
once  a  year,  Rachel ;  we  could  spend  your  money,  and  all  your  sisters', 
too." 

9.  "I  have  but  one  aunt  —  and  —  and  I  have  another  use  for  the 
money,  my  lord,"  says  my  lady,  turning  very  red. 

10.  u  Another  use,  my  dear  !  And  what  do  you  know  about  money  ?  " 
cries  my  lord.  "  And  what  the  devil  is  there  that  I  don't  give  you 
which  you  want  ?  " 

11.  "I  intend  to  give  this  money  —  can't  you  fancy  how,  my  lord  ?  " 

12.  My  lord  swore  one  of  his  large  oaths  that  he  did  not  know  in 
the  least  what  she  meafct. 

13.  "I  intend  it  for  Harry  Esmond  to  go  to  college.  Cousin  Harry," 
says  my  lady,  "  you  mustn't  stay  longer  in  this  dull  place,  but  make  a 
name  to  yourself,  and  for  us  too,  Harry." 

The  foregoing  passage  is  fairly  representative  of  the  way 
in  which  narration  is  paragraphed.  These  thirteen  para- 
graphs possess  unity,  but  unity  of  a  somewhat  different 
sort  from  that  which  one  usually  finds  in  expository,  argu- 
mentative, and  descriptive  writing.  At  the  point  where 
this  passage  begins,  the  main  thread  of  the  narrative  has 


158  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

been  broken  off,  in  order  that  the  writer  may  introduce 
a  separate  episode  or  incident.  The  first  paragraph  tells 
how  the  theological  books  that  were  borrowed  from  the 
Dean  helped  to  bring  about  Henry  Esmond's  "  conversion." 
The  second  paragraph  gives  something  like  a  detailed 
account  of  the  way  in  which  Lady  Castlewood  directed  this 
course  of  theological  reading.  It  is  the  business  of  the 
third  paragraph  to  finish  this  episode,  even  though  it  takes 
the  reader  far  ahead  of  the  rest  of  the  story.  This  para- 
graph tells  what  was  the  result  of  Esmond's  theological 
bent,  and  what  calling  he  had  for  the  work  of  the  ministry. 
When  the  episode  is  finished,  another  break  occurs.  The 
main  thread  of  the  narrative  is  to  be  resumed.  Accord- 
ingly, in  the  opening  sentence  of  the  fourth  paragraph,  the 
reader  finds  himself  once  more  on  the  main  line  of  the 
story  —  but  only  for  a  moment ;  this  first  sentence  merely 
introduces  the  bit  of  characterization  found  in  the  next  two 
sentences.  All  the  rest  of  the  paragraph  is  given  to  the 
author's  comment  on  a  certain  trait  of  Lady  Castlewood's 
character.  This  fourth  paragraph  is  open  to  some  criticism. 
It  would  perhaps  have  been  better  to  make  one  paragraph 
of  the  first  three  sentences,  and  to  have  put  all  the  rest, 
which  contains  the  author's  comment,  into  a  separate  para- 
graph. At  the  end  of  this  comment  another  break  occurs, 
and  in  the  fifth  paragraph  the  main  thread  of  the  story  is 
once  more  taken  up,  not  to  be  dropped  again  until  the  close 
of  the  chapter.  This  paragraph  recounts  what  Lady  Cas- 
tlewood did  and  said  after  Tom  Tusher's  departure.  The 
sixth  paragraph  tells  what  the  children  said.  The  seventh 
deals  with  a  separate  incident:  it  tells  of  the  messenger 
and  the  news  that  he  brought.  The  eighth  relates  what 
Viscount  Castlewood  said  when  he  heard  the  news.  The 
ninth   gives   Lady   Castlewood's   reply.      The   next  four 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH     159 

paragraphs  continue  the  conversation.  To  each  sepa- 
rate speech,  it  will  be  noticed,  a  separate  paragraph  is 
given. 

From  the  passage  which  has  just  been  cited  and  from 
his  reading,  the  student  will  be  able  to  deduce  something 
like  a  law  or  principle  of  paragraph  division  for  narrative 
writing.  He  has  noticed  that  a  story  naturally  divides 
itself  up  into  more  or  less  distinct  events,  incidents,  or 
episodes.  To  each  event  or  incident  —  that  is,  to  each 
stage  or  step  in  the  progress  of  the  story  —  a  separate  para- 
graph is  given.  The  seventh  paragraph  of  the  passage 
quoted  from  Thackeray  is  a  good  example.  When  the 
episode  is  somewhat*  longer,  like  the  one  at  the  beginning 
of  the  passage  cited,  it  may  be  divided  into  several  sub- 
divisions. Again,  a  new  paragraph  may  be  made  for  the 
purpose  of  introducing  a  bit  of  description  or  of  char- 
acterization, some  word  of  explanation,  or  some  pertinent 
comment.  Thus  a  new  paragraph  is  made  whenever  there 
is  any  sudden  or  decided  break  in  the  continuity  of  the 
narrative.  Furthermore,  in  the  paragraphing  of  conversa- 
tion, it  is  customary  to  put  into  a  separate  paragraph  every 
separate  speech  of  each  character,  together  with  any  ex- 
planatory remark  that  may  accompany  this  speech.  The 
way  in  which  conversation  is  ordinarily  paragraphed  is 
well  illustrated  in  the  last  six  paragraphs  of  the  quotation 
from  "Henry  Esmond."  All  these  considerations,  when 
taken  together,  constitute  something  like  a  principle  of 
paragraph  division  for  narrative  writing.  When  the  para- 
graphs of  a  narrative  are  constructed  in  accordance  with 
this  principle,  they  will  perform  their  true  function  of 
keeping  together  those  things  which  are  closely  related, 
and  of  keeping  apart  those  things  which  do  not  belong 
together. 


160  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

The  commonest  methods,  then,  of  amplifying  paragraph- 
topics  into  paragraphs  are  by  means  of  repetition,  com- 
parison, contrast,  obverse  iteration,  the  relation  of  cause 
and  effect,  formal  proof,  specific  instances,  and  particu- 
larization.  One  or  two  or  more  of  these  methods  may  be 
used  in  the  construction  of  a  single  paragraph.  While  all 
kinds  of  subjects  are  developed  by  means  of  these  methods, 
they  are  more  frequently  used  in  expository  and  argumen- 
tative writing  than  in  description  and  narration.  The 
method  of  building  up  a  paragraph  by  means  of  particulars 
or  details  is  so  frequently  used  in  descriptive  writing  that 
it  may  be  considered  the  typical  method  of  amplifying  a 
descriptive  paragraph.  The  same  method  is  also  some- 
times used  in  narration.  In  the  writing  of  stories  a  new 
paragraph  is  made  whenever  there  is  a  sudden  or  decided 
break  in  the  continuity  of  the  narrative.  The  paragraphs 
mark  the  distinct  stages  or  steps  in  the  progress  of  the 
story.  A  new  paragraph  is  given  to  each  main  incident  or 
event,  and  to  the  separate  speech  of  each  character.  A 
new  paragraph  is  also  begun  whenever  the  writer  intro- 
duces a  short  descriptive  passage,  a  bit  of  characterization, 
a  word  of  explanation  or  of  comment. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Write  a  theme  on  one  of  the  following  subjects :  — 
i.  The  Characteristics  of  a  Good  Student. 

2.  How  I  Read  the  Newspapers. 

3.  The  Needs  of  my  Native  Town. 

4.  My  Purpose  in  Securing  an  Education. 

5.  What  is  a  Practical  Education? 

6.  My  Advice  to  a  Freshman  Who  is  just  about  to  Enter  College. 

7.  How  an  Electric  Railway  Benefits  a  Town. 

8.  My  Aim  in  Life. 


DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE   PARAGRAPH  161 

II.  Criticise  the  structure  of  each  paragraph  of  your  theme. 

III.  Make  a  critical  study  of  the  paragraph  structure  of  the  following 
extract  from  Washington  Irving's  "  S ketch-Book."  By  what  method 
or  methods  is  each  paragraph  developed? 


Rural  Life  in  England 

i.  The  stranger  who  would  form  a  correct  opinion  of  the  English 
character  must  not  confine  his  observations  to  the  metropolis.  He 
must  go  forth  into  the  country ;  he  must  sojourn  in  villages  and  ham- 
lets ;  he  must  visit  castles,  villas,  farmhouses,  cottages ;  he  must  wan- 
der through  parks  and  gardens,  along  hedges  and  green  lanes ;  he  must 
loiter  about  country  churches ;  attend  wakes  and  fairs  and  other  rural 
festivals ;  and  cope  with  the  people  in  all  their  conditions  and  all  their 
habits  and  humors.         • 

2.  In  some  countries  the  large  cities  absorb  the  wealth  and  fashion 
of  the  nation ;  they  are  the  only  fixed  abodes  of  elegant  and  intelligent 
society,  and  the  country  is  inhabited  almost  entirely  by  boorish  peas- 
antry. In  England,  on  the  contrary,  the  metropolis  is  a  mere  gather- 
ing place,  or  general  rendezvous,  of  the  polite  classes,  where  they 
devote  a  small  portion  of  the  year  to  a  hurry  of  gayety  and  dissipation, 
and  having  indulged  this  kind  of  carnival,  return  again  to  the  appar- 
ently more  congenial  habits  of  rural  life.  The  various  orders  of  society 
are  therefore  diffused  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  kingdom,  and  the 
most  retired  neighborhoods  afford  specimens  of  the  different  ranks. 

3.  The  English,  in  fact,  are  strongly  gifted  with  the  rural  feeling. 
They  possess  a  quick  sensibility  to  the  beauties  of  nature,  and  a  keen 
relish  for  the  pleasures  and  employments  of  the  country.  This  passion 
seems  inherent  in  them.  Even  the  inhabitants  of  cities,  born  and 
brought  up  among  brick  walls  and  bustling  streets,  enter  with  facility 
into  rural  habits  and  evince  a  tact  for  rural  occupation.  The  merchant 
has  his  snug  retreat  in  the  vicinity  of  the  metropolis,  where  he  often 
displays  as  much  pride  and  zeal  in  the  cultivation  of  his  flower  garden 
and  the  maturing  of  his  fruits  as  he  does  in  the  conduct  of  his  business 
and  the  success  of  a  commercial  enterprise.  Even  those  less  fortu- 
nate individuals  who  are  doomed  to  pass  their  lives  in  the  midst  of  din 
and  traffic  contrive  to  have  something  that  shall  remind  them  of  the 
green  aspect  of  nature.  In  the  most  dark  and  dingy  quarters  of  the 
city  the  drawing-room  window  resembles  frequently  a  bank  of  flowers ; 


162  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

every  spot  capable  of  vegetation  has  its  grass-plot  and  flower-bed  ;  and 
every  square  its  mimic  park,  laid  out  with  picturesque  taste  and  gleam- 
ing with  refreshing  verdure. 

4.  Those  who  see  the  Englishman  only  in  town  are  apt  to  form  an 
unfavorable  opinion  of  his  social  character.  He  is  either  absorbed  in 
business  or  distracted  by  the  thousand  engagements  that  dissipate  time, 
thought,  and  feeling,  in  this  huge  metropolis.  He  has,  therefore,  too 
commonly  a  look  of  hurry  and  abstraction.  Wherever  he  happens  to 
be,  he  is  on  the  point  of  going  somewhere  else ;  at  the  moment  he  is 
talking  on  one  subject,  his  mind  is  wandering  to  another ;  and  while 
paying  a  friendly  visit,  he  is  calculating  how  he  shall  economize  time 
so  as  to  pay  the  other  visits  allotted  to  the  morning.  An  immense 
metropolis  like  London  is  calculated  to  make  men  selfish  and  uninter- 
esting. In  their  casual  and  transient  meetings  they  can  but  deal  briefly 
in  commonplaces.  They  present  but  the  cold  superficies  of  character 
—  its  rich  and  genial  qualities  have  no  time  to  be  warmed  into  a  flow. 

5.  It  is  in  the  country  that  the  Englishman  gives  scope  to  his  natu- 
ral feelings.  He  breaks  loose  gladly  from  the  cold  formalities  and 
negative  civilities  of  town ;  throws  off  his  habits  of  shy  reserve  and 
becomes  joyous  and  free-hearted.  He  manages  to  collect  round  him 
all  the  conveniences  and  elegancies  of  polite  life,  and  to  banish  its 
restraints.  His  country-seat  abounds  with  every  requisite  either  for 
studious  retirement,  tasteful  gratification,  or  rural  exercise.  Books, 
paintings,  music,  horses,  dogs,  and  sporting  implements  of  all  kinds 
are  at  hand.  He  puts  no  constraint  either  upon  his  guests  or  himself, 
but  in  the  true  spirit  of  hospitality  provides  the  means  of  enjoyment, 
and  leaves  every  one  to  partake  according  to  his  inclination. 

6.  The  taste  of  the  English  in  the  cultivation  of  land  and  in  what  is 
called  landscape  gardening  is  unrivalled.  They  have  studied  Nature 
intently,  and  have  discovered  an  exquisite  sense  of  her  beautiful  forms 
and  harmonious  combinations.  Those  charms  which,  in  other  coun- 
tries, she  lavishes  in  wild  solitudes  are  here  assembled  round  the  haunts 
of  domestic  life.  They  seem  to  have  caught  her  coy  and  furtive  graces 
and  spread  them,  like  witchery,  about  their  rural  abodes. 

7.  Nothing  can  be  more  imposing  than  the  magnificence  of  English 
park  scenery.  Vast  lawns  that  extend  like  sheets  of  vivid  green,  with 
here  and  there  clumps  of  gigantic  trees,  heaping  up  rich  piles  of  foliage. 
The  solemn  pomp  of  groves  and  woodland  glades,  with  the  deer 
trooping  in  silent  herds  across  them  ;  the  hare,  bounding  away  to  the 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   PARAGRAPH  1 63 

covert  ;  or  the  pheasant,  suddenly  bursting  upon  the  wing.  The  brook, 
taught  to  wind  in  natural  meanderings  or  expand  into  a  glassy  lake  — 
the  sequestered  pool,  reflecting  the  quivering  trees,  with  the  yellow  leaf 
sleeping  on  its  bosom,  and  the  trout  roaming  fearlessly  about  its  limpid 
waters  ;  while  some  rustic  temple  or  sylvan  statue,  grown  green  and 
dank  with  age,  gives  an  air  of  classic  sanctity  to  the  seclusion. 

8.  These  are  but  a  few  of  the  features  of  park  scenery  ;  but  what 
most  delights  me  is  the  creative  talent  with  which  the  English  decorate 
the  unostentatious  abodes  of  middle  life.  The  rudest  habitation,  the 
most  unpromising  and  scanty  portion  of  land,  in  the  hands  of  an  Eng- 
lishman of  taste,  becomes  a  little  paradise.  With  a  nicely  discriminat- 
ing eye,  he  seizes  at  once  upon  its  capabilities,  and  pictures  in  his  mind 
the  future  landscape.  The  sterile  spot  grows  into  loveliness  under  his 
hand  ;  and  yet  the  operations  of  art  which  produce  the  effect  are 
scarcely  to  be  perceived*  The  cherishing  and  training  of  some  trees  ; 
the  cautious  pruning  of  others  ;  the  nice  distribution  of  flowers  and 
plants  of  tender  and  graceful  foliage  ;  the  introduction  of  a  green  slope 
of  velvet  turf  ;  the  partial  opening  to  a  peep  of  blue  distance  or  silver 
gleam  of  water,  —  all  these  are  managed  with  a  delicate  tact,  a  pervad- 
ing yet  quiet  assiduity,  like  the  magic  touchings  with  which  a  painter 
finishes  up  a  favorite  picture. 

9.  The  residence  of  people  of  fortune  and  refinement  in  the  country 
has  diffused  a  degree  of  taste  and  elegance  in  rural  economy  that  de- 
scends to  the  lowest  class.  The  very  laborer,  with  his  thatched  cottage 
and  narrow  slip  of  ground,  attends  to  their  embellishment.  The  trim 
hedge,  the  grass-plot  before  the  door,  the  little  flower-bed  bordered 
with  snug  box,  the  woodbine  trained  up  against  the  wall  and  hanging 
its  blossoms  about  the  lattice,  the  pot  of  flowers  in  the  window,  the 
holly  providently  planted  about  the  house  to  cheat  winter  of  its  dreari- 
ness and  to  throw  in  a  semblance  of  green  summer  to  cheer  the  fire- 
side, —  all  these  bespeak  the  influence  of  taste,  flowing  down  from  high 
sources  and  pervading  the  lowest  levels  of  the  public  mind.  If  ever 
Love,  as  poets  sing,  delights  to  visit  a  cottage,  it  must  be  the  cottage  of 
an  English  peasant.  % 

10.  The  fondness  for  rural  life  among  the  higher  classes  of  the 
English  has  had  a  great  and  salutary  effect  upon  the  national  character. 
I  do  not  know  a  finer  race  of  men  than  the  English  gentlemen.  In- 
stead of  the  softness  and  effeminacy  which  characterize  the  men  of  rank 
in  most  countries,  they  exhibit  a  union  of  elegance  and  strength,  a 


164  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

robustness  of  frame  and  freshness  of  complexion,  which  I  am  inclined 
to  attribute  to  their  living  so  much  in  the  open  air  and  pursuing  so 
eagerly  the  invigorating  recreations  of  the  country.  The  hardy  exer- 
cises produce  also  a  healthful  tone  of  mind  and  spirits,  and  a  manliness 
and  simplicity  of  manners,  which  even  the  follies  and  dissipations  of  the 
town  cannot  easily  pervert  and  can  never  entirely  destroy. 

ii.  In  the  country,  too,  the  different  orders  of  society  seem  to  ap- 
proach more  freely,  to  be  more  disposed  to  blend  and  operate  favorably 
upon  each  other.  The  distinctions  between  them  do  not  appear  to  be 
so  marked  and  impassable  as  in  the  cities.  The  manner  in  which  prop- 
erty has  been  distributed  into  small  estates  and  farms  has  established 
a  regular  gradation  from  the  nobleman,  through  the  classes  of  gentry, 
small  landed  proprietors,  and  substantial  farmers,  down  to  the  laboring 
peasantry  ;  and  while  it  has  thus  banded  the  extremes  of  society  to- 
gether, it  has  infused  into  each  intermediate  rank  a  spirit  of  indepen- 
dence. This,  it  must  be  confessed,  is  not  so  universally  the  case  at 
present  as  it  was  formerly  ;  the  larger  estates  having,  in  late  years  of 
distress,  absorbed  the  smaller  and,  in  some  parts  of  the  country,  almost 
annihilated  the  sturdy  race  of  small  farmers.  These,  however,  I  believe, 
are  but  casual  breaks  in  the  general  system  I  have  mentioned. 

12.  In  rural  occupation  there  is  nothing  mean  and  debasing.  It 
leads  a  man  forth  among  scenes  of  natural  grandeur  and  beauty.  It 
leaves  him  to  the  workings  of  his  own  mind,  operated  upon  by  the 
purest  and  most  elevating  of  external  influences.  Such  a  man  may  be 
simple  and  rough,  but  he  cannot  be  vulgar.  The  man  of  refinement, 
therefore,  finds  nothing  revolting  in  an  intercourse  with  the  lower  orders 
in  rural  life,  as  he  does  when  he  casually  mingles  with  the  lower  orders 
of  cities.  He  lays  aside  his  distance  and  reserve,  and  is  glad  to  waive 
the  distinctions  of  rank  and  to  enter  into  the  honest,  heart-felt  enjoy- 
ments of  common  life.  Indeed,  the  very  amusements  of  the  country 
bring  men  more  and  more  together,  and  the  sound  of  hound  and  horn 
blends  all  feelings  into  harmony.  I  believe  this  is  one  great  reason 
why  the  nobility  and  gentry  are  more  popular  among  the  inferior  orders 
in  England  than  they  are  in  any  other  country,  and  why  the  latter  have 
endured  so  many  excessive  pressures  and  extremities  without  repining 
more  generally  at  the  unequal  distribution  of  fortune  and  privilege. 

13.  To  this  mingling  of  cultivated  and  rustic  society  may  also  be 
attributed  the  rural  feeling  that  runs  through  British  literature  ;  the 
frequent  use  of  illustrations  from  rural  life  ;  those  incomparable  de- 


DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE    PARAGRAPH  165 

scriptions  of  nature  which  abound  in  the  British  poets,  which  have  con- 
tinued down  from  "The  Flower  and  the  Leaf"  of  Chaucer,  and  have 
brought  into  our  closets  all  the  freshness  and  fragrance  of  the  dewy 
landscape.  The  pastoral  writers  of  other  countries  appear  as  if  they 
had  paid  Nature  an  occasional  visit  and  become  acquainted  with  her 
general  charms  ;  but  the  British  poets  have  lived  and  revelled  with  her ; 
they  have  wooed  her  in  her  most  secret  haunts  ;  they  have  watched  her 
minutest  caprices.  A  spray  could  not  tremble  in  the  breeze,  a  leaf 
could  not  rustle  to  the  ground,  a  diamond  drop  could  not  patter  in  the 
stream,  a  fragrance  could  not  exhale  from  the  humble  violet,  nor  a 
daisy  unfold  its  crimson  tints  to  the  morning,  but  it  has  been  noticed 
by  these  impassioned  and  delicate  observers  and  wrought  up  into  some 
beautiful  morality. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE   PARAGRAPH   THEME 

So  far  the  paragraph  has  been  considered  chiefly  as  the 
related  part  of  a  larger  whole.  In  magazine  articles  and  in 
the  chapters  of  a  book  each  paragraph  is  but  the  fractional 
part  of  a  longer  composition.  The  paragraph  may,  how- 
ever, be  a  composition  complete  in  itself.  In  fact,  much 
of  our  reading  in  the  daily  newspapers  is  made  up  of  just 
such  short  compositions,  each  of  which  contains  only  one 
paragraph.  To  a  single  event  or  item  of  news  it  happens 
that  only  a  single  paragraph  can  be  given.  The  "  personal 
column "  of  a  newspaper  usually  contains  a  number  of 
isolated  paragraphs,  each  of  which  recounts  some  facts 
of  personal  interest  about  some  well-known  man  or  woman. 
Again,  in  a  single  paragraph  some  interesting  anecdote  or 
entertaining  incident  is  related,  or  perhaps  something  new 
or  curious  or  remarkable  is  described.  On  the  editorial 
page,  too,  are  usually  found  a  number  of  these  paragraph 
compositions,  generally  argumentative  or  expository  in  na- 
ture, each  setting  forth,  briefly  and  pointedly,  the  editor's 
opinion  or  his  comments  on  certain  matters  of  current 
interest.  Thus  in  the  columns  of  one  of  our  daily  news- 
papers a  large  number  and  variety  of  subjects,  requiring 
more  or  less  skill  and  facility  in  the  various  kinds  of  writ- 
ten discourse,  receive  brief  but  sufficient  treatment  in  these 
miniature  compositions.  In  each  case  the  writer  has  only 
a  limited  amount  of  space  in  which  to  set  down  all  that  he 

1 66 


THE   PARAGRAPH    THEME  167 

has  to  say  on  a  given  subject.  Thus  it  has  come  about 
that  these  isolated  paragraphs,  each  dealing  with  a  separate 
topic,  form  a  familiar  part  of  our  everyday  reading  and 
constitute  almost  a  distinct  type  of  composition. 

The  common  use  of  these  isolated  paragraphs  suggests 
a  valuable  exercise  in  composition.  With  teachers  it  is  a 
matter  of  common  experience  that  a  short  theme  contain- 
ing but  a  single  paragraph  of  about  two  hundred  words 
offers  just  as  valuable  an  exercise  in  composition  as  a 
much  longer  and  more  ambitious  essay.  True  it  is  that  "a 
short  exercise  of  ten  lines,  carefully  and  thoroughly  pol- 
ished, will  often  do  #nore  for  the  student  than  a  wordy 
'essay'  of  as  many  pages."  The  paragraph  theme  is 
simply  a  short  composition  which  is  complete  within  the 
limits  of  a  single  paragraph.  The  writing  of  such  themes 
is  a  valuable  exercise  for  the  student  mainly  because  it 
imposes  the  strictest  limitations  upon  his  work.  A  para- 
graph theme  should  ordinarily  contain  between  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  and  two  hundred  and  fifty  words.  Within 
so  small  a  space  it  is  obvious  that  one  may  not  wander 
about  aimlessly  and  ineffectively  without  violating,  in  the 
most  conspicuous  manner,  some  of  the  principles  of  Com- 
position. The  student  who  wishes  to  write  a  satisfactory 
paragraph  theme  must  first  have  a  definitely  conceived  and 
carefully  restricted  subject ;  next,  he  must  keep  his  theme 
within  the  prescribed  space  limit ;  and  finally,  he  must, 
within  this  limited  space,  make  a  rigid  application  of  the 
principles  of  Composition. 

The  writing  of  paragraph  themes  is  especially  valuable 
as  an  exercise  in  rapid  composition.  To  be  able  to  write 
clearly,  correctly,  and  even  forcibly  can  no  longer  be 
deemed  sufficient;  the  student  must  also  learn  to  write 
easily  and  rapidly.     In  the  exigencies  of  our  modern  life 


168  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

there  are  occasions  when  a  man  is  called  upon,  on  the  spur 
of  the  moment,  to  express  his  thoughts  without  waste  of 
time  or  words.  It  is  worth  while  to  be  prepared  for  such 
an  emergency.  To  this  end  the  student  of  Composition 
should  strive  to  attain  some  degree  of  facility  in  the  expres- 
sion of  his  ideas.  No  better  exercise  in  rapid  composition 
can  be  devised  than  the  writing  of  paragraph  themes  on 
restricted  topics  with  which  the  student  is  familiar.  Teach- 
ers and  students  who  desire  to  make  the  most  practical  use 
of  their  time  can  well  afford  to  reserve  the  last  fifteen  min- 
utes of  the  recitation  period  for  the  writing  of  an  impromptu 
paragraph  theme.1 

Frequent  practice  in  the  writing  of  paragraph  themes  is 
valuable  also  because  this  exercise,  no  less  than  that  of 
writing  longer  themes,  calls  into  active  use  all  the  prin- 
ciples of  Composition.  Indeed,  it  lays  upon  the  student 
the  necessity  of  making  the  closest  and  most  painstaking 
application  of  these  principles ;  for  in  a  single  paragraph 
any  violation  of  fundamental  principles  is  likely  to  be, 
as  a  rule,  far  more  noticeable  than  in  longer  compositions. 
The  reason  is  evident.    The  paragraph  theme  is  short,  and 


1  It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  teacher  of  Composition  who  has  once  made  the  experi- 
ment of  having  his  students  write  impromptu  paragraph  themes  in  the  class-room 
each  day  needs  no  argument  to  convince  him  of  the  value  of  such  an  exercise.  In 
the  use  of  this  exercise  the  author  has  met  with  the  most  gratifying  results.  Almost 
every  day  the  last  fifteen  minutes  of  the  recitation  period  have  been  set  aside  for 
the  writing  of  a  paragraph  theme.  Sometimes  the  subject  has  been  assigned;  at 
other  times  the  student  has  been  asked  to  make  his  choice  of  subject  before  he 
comes  to  class.  In  every  case  the  subject  should  be  familiar;  for  the  student 
should  be  ready  to  begin  to  write  at  once.  He  is  usually  advised  to  devote  the  last 
three  or  four  minutes  to  the  careful  revision  of  his  work.  These  themes  should  be 
criticised  by  the  teacher  and  returned  to  the  student.  Sometimes  the  teacher  may 
read  and  criticise  them  in  the  presence  of  the  class.  Occasionally  each  student 
may  be  asked  to  read  his  theme  in  order  that  the  other  members  of  the  class  may 
criticise  and  discuss  it.  The  practice  of  writing  daily  paragraph  themes  is  sure  to 
give  the  student  facility,  confidence,  and  power. 


THE   PARAGRAPH   THEME  169 

its  structure  is  simple.  If  the  writer  disregards  the  prin- 
ciples that  should  govern  his  work,  neither  length  nor  com- 
plexity obscures  the  fault.  A  digression  from  the  main 
line  of  thought  that  constitutes  the  paragraph-topic,  an 
injudicious  selection  of  material,  an  incoherent  arrange- 
ment, a  violation  of  Proportion,  a  feeble  beginning,  or  an 
ineffective  ending,  —  any  of  these  common  faults  will 
stand  out  far  more  prominently  in  a  single  paragraph  than 
in  a  longer  composition.  The  student  should  not  fail  to 
see  how  grossly  the  principles  of  Composition  are  violated 
in  the  following  paragraph  :  — 

You  may  be  surprised  to  learn  that  the  Indian  who  lives  on  a  reser- 
vation takes  no  interest  in  agriculture.  Yet  such  is  the  case.  I  mean 
the  full-blooded  Indian.  He  is  not  allowed  to  sell  because  the  United 
States  government  fears  that  he  may  be  cheated.  If  the  Indian  is  to 
be  cheated  at  all,  the  government  apparently  desires  to  have  a  monopoly 
of  the  privilege.  Some  of  the  Indians  have  leased  their  lands  away  and 
manage  to  live  comfortably  on  the  proceeds.  The  Indian  has  never  out- 
grown his  love  for  the  free,  wild  life  of  forest  and  plain.  In  the  Indian 
Territory  the  soil  is  rich,  and  agricultural  opportunities  are  abundant. 
The  mixed  Indian  is  the  one  who  cultivates  the  soil.  The  full-blooded 
Indian  is  shiftless,  and  generally  will  not  take  advantage  of  his  oppor- 
tunities. He  prefers  to  isolate  himself  and  to  roam  about  and  hunt 
when  there  is  any  game.  The  Indian's  doom  was  sealed  from  the  time 
when  the  fertile  valleys  and  uplands  were  first  opened  up  to  the  white 
farmer  and  herdsman.  The  Indian  of  to-day  presents  the  pitiful  spec- 
tacle of  a  man  who  is  out  of  harmony  with  his  environment.  In  the 
Territory  there  is  abundant  rainfall,  and  the  climate  is  favorable  to 
farming.  A  New  England  farmer  could  soon  become  rich  in  so  fruitful 
a  region.  The  Indian  who  does  engage  in  agriculture  farms  only  enough 
land  to  supply  his  needs.     The  remainder  of  his  land  is  uncultivated. 

The  paragraph  theme  furnishes  excellent  exercise  in 
applying  the  related  principles  of  Unity  and  Selection. 
Within  so  narrow  a  space  any  deviation  from  the  main 
thought  that  forms  the  paragraph-topic  will  be  apparent  at 


170  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

once.  Thus  the  student  can  readily  detect  the  presence  of 
irrelevant  material.  Anything  in  the  nature  of  a  digres- 
sion, however,  is  far  less  likely  to  occur  when  the  writer 
has  but  a  small  amount  of  space  and  must  exercise  the 
strictest  economy.  The  limitation  of  space  will  also  help 
him  to  apply  the  principle  of  Selection.  From  the  numer- 
ous ideas  that  are  suggested  by  his  subject  he  is  obliged  to 
select  his  material  with  painstaking  care.  If  he  desires  to 
make  the  most  of  his  limited  space,  he  will  choose  only 
those  ideas  that  are  weighty,  valuable,  essential.  In  a 
single  paragraph  he  will  have  no  room  for  any  idea  that  is 
irrelevant,  incidental,  or  unimportant. 

The  habit  of  devising  a  logical  arrangement  for  one's 
ideas  can  also  be  acquired  from  writing  paragraph  themes. 
In  the  composition  of  single  paragraphs  one  soon  learns 
the  necessity  of  binding  all  his  sentences  together  in  a 
coherent  whole.  Moreover,  when  one  is  writing  a  theme 
on  a  small  scale,  he  can  more  readily  detect  any  lack  of 
connection  between  the  successive  parts  of  his  work.  In 
a  single  paragraph  the  writer  covers  only  a  small  space, 
and  he  will  therefore  the  more  easily  notice  any  breaks  in 
the  continuity  of  his  thought.  When  he  once  begins  to 
recognize  these  gaps,  he  is  in  a  fair  way  to  master  the 
principle  of  Coherence.  If,  in  his  paragraph  theme,  he 
notices  any  violation  of  Coherence,  he  will,  in  the  first 
place,  so  recast  and  rearrange  his  ideas  that  each  sentence 
will  naturally  grow  out  of  the  preceding  one  and  will  logi- 
cally lead  up  to  the  sentence  that  is  to  follow ;  and  he  will, 
in  the  second  place,  make  this  logical  arrangement  entirely 
evident  to  the  reader  by  inserting  the  necessary  connecting 
words  or  phrases. 

In  writing  these  miniature  compositions  the  student  also 
has  an  opportunity  of  learning  how  to  apply  the  principles 


THE  PARAGRAPH   THEME  171 

of  Emphasis  and  Proportion.  The  joint  purpose  of  these 
two  principles  is  to  place  special  stress  upon  the  most 
important  ideas.  Both  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  an 
isolated  paragraph  stand  out  with  special  prominence ; 
and  in  so  small  a  space  any  lack  of  proportion  is  sure  to 
distort  and  enfeeble  the  whole.  The  beginning  should 
give  emphatic  expression  to  the  paragraph-topic,  and  the 
last  words  should  lay  particular  stress  upon  the  writer's 
concluding  thought.  To  each  thought  that  contributes  to 
the  amplification  of  the  topic  should  be  assigned  an  amount 
of  space  commensurate  with  its  importance.  In  so  short  a 
composition,  an  unenfphatic  beginning,  a  faulty  apportion- 
ment of  one's  space,  or  a  slipshod  ending,  which  gives 
neither  emphasis  to  the  central  idea  nor  completeness  to  the 
theme,  is  likely  to  be  glaringly  apparent.  In  a  single  para- 
graph the  writer  will  be  able  to  notice  any  faults  like  these, 
and  to  correct  them  in  the  revision  of  his  work.  Thus, 
by  practice  in  writing  paragraph  themes,  careful  attention 
to  Emphasis  and  Proportion  may  become  habitual. 

All  the  principles  that  have  just  been  discussed  apply 
not  only  to  the  composition  of  the  paragraph,  but  also 
to  its  final  revision.  If  it  is  true  that  the  common  viola- 
tions of  these  principles  can  readily  be  detected  in  the 
isolated  paragraph,  the  student  should  take  advantage  of 
this  fact  by  carefully  revising  every  paragraph  theme  as 
soon  as  it  is  written.  In  the  absorption  and  haste  of  com- 
position it  is  quite  possible  for  any  writer  to  violate  one 
or  more  of  the  principles  of  Composition.  Some  faulty 
and  feeble  modes  of  expression  are  almost  certain  to  find 
their  way  into  his  theme.  These  should  be  sought  out 
and  corrected.  The  student  who  has  taken  pains  to  culti- 
vate a  critical  disposition  toward  his  work,  and  who,  in  the 
revision  of  his  theme,  is  able  to  see  and  remove  these 


172  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

faults,  will  soon  find  himself  able  to  write  good  paragraphs, 
whether  as  complete  themes  or  as  related  parts  of  longer 
compositions. 

Any  one  who  has  had  considerable  practice  in  writing 
paragraph  themes  is  not  likely  to  produce,  in  his  longer 
essays,  what  may  for  convenience  be  called  the  "  undevel- 
oped paragraph."  This  type  of  paragraph,  which  occurs 
with  annoying  frequency  in  students'  themes,  has  a  begin- 
ning and  an  end,  but  no  substantial  body.  The  central 
thought  is  stated,  but  either  from  laziness  or  lack  of  mate- 
rial, it  is  not  sufficiently  developed  and  enforced.  Every 
paragraph,  whether  it  is  complete  in  itself  or  only  a  part 
of  a  longer  composition,  should  have  an  appreciable  body ; 
and  this  fact  the  student  is  likely  to  realize  from  his 
experience  in  writing  paragraph  themes. 

Almost  any  kind  of  subject  —  narrative,  descriptive,  ex- 
pository, or  argumentative  —  can  be  treated  in  the  para- 
graph theme.  Care  should  always  be  taken,  however, 
that  the  subject  be  sufficiently  restricted  in  scope  and 
entirely  familiar  to  the  writer.  The  following  paragraph 
themes,  which  students  have  written  as  class-exercises,  are 
quoted  not  as  models  of  perfect  composition,  but  as  fair 
illustrations  of  the  quality  of  work  that  can  be  produced 
and  the  range  of  subjects  that  can  be  treated.  The  first 
paragraph  is  a  short  narrative.  The  second  example  is 
descriptive.  The  third  is  a  brief  description  and  charac- 
terization. In  the  fourth  exposition  and  description  are 
combined.  The  last  is  a  short  argumentative  paragraph 
written  as  an  editorial  for  a  college  paper. 

i.    A  Foolish  Trick 

One  day,  when  another  boy  and  I  were  out  hunting,  we  came  to  an 
old  oil-well.   The  derrick  had  been  taken  away  and  the  well  "  plugged." 


THE   PARAGRAPH   THEME  173 

On  approaching  the  well  we  heard  a  bubbling  sound  which  we  immedi- 
ately knew  to  be  escaping  gas.  As  the  odor  of  the  gas  was  very  faint, 
we  concluded  that  not  much  was  escaping,  and  we  decided  to  light  it. 
So  I  threw  a  lighted  match  over  the  well,  but  the  gas  would  not  ignite. 
I  then  removed  the  "  plug  "  and  threw  a  lighted  match  down  into  the 
hole.  No  sooner  had  I  done  this  than  there  was  a  violent  explosion. 
The  fire,  bursting  forth  from  the  well,  blew  my  hat  off,  singed  my  hair 
and  eyebrows,  and  scorched  my  clothes.  The  gas  which  had  collected 
in  the  well  had  exploded.  After  the  explosion  the  fire  went  out,  as 
there  was  not  enough  gas  escaping  to  keep  it  going. 

2.  A  Queer  Craft 

Some  years  ago,  in  company  with  a  fellow-student,  I  took  a  trip  down 
the  Susquehanna  in  a  boat  different  from  any  that  I  have  ever  seen. 
Those  who  had  no  personal  interest  in  it  called  it  a  scow ;  and,  indeed, 
its  square  ends,  only  a  little  narrower  than  the  middle,  its  flat  bottom 
and  low  sides,  made  it  much  like  a  scow.  Then,  too,  its  motion  was 
scow-like;  it  moved  with  equal  ease  and  rapidity  in  any  direction, — 
forward,  backward,  or  sidewise.  But  that  which  gave  it  distinction  was 
the  superstructure.  Instead  of  the  stationary  cabin  of  the  ordinary 
house-boat,  it  had  movable  wooden  posts  placed  in  sockets  at  the  ends 
and  sides,  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  picket  fence  as  high  as  a  man's  head. 
Over  this  framework  a  canvas  roof  was  drawn,  with  curtains  for  the 
sides,  to  shut  out  sun  and  rain.  Along  each  side  of  the  boat  was  a  row 
of  strong  hooks,  on  which  was  fastened  at  night  a  heavy  canvas  deck 
to  serve  as  a  bed.  On  rare  days,  when  the  weather  was  fair  and  the 
wind  favorable,  the  roof  and  the  curtains  and  all  the  posts  except  the 
one  at  the  forward  end  were  taken  down.  With  a  rude  sail  rigged  on 
this  post,  and  a  board  nailed  to  the  side  to  serve  as  a  keel,  we  could 
make  four  or  five  miles  an  hour.  For  the  most  part,  however,  our  boat 
moved  only  with  the  current.  A  strange  craft  it  must  have  looked 
from  the  shore  as  it  drifted  aimlessly  down  the  stream,  the  white  canvas 
almost  covering  the  gray  woodwork,  and  seeming  to  rest  on  the  very 
water  like  a  floating  tent. 

3.  Father  Harley 

Father  Harley  was  a  familiar  personage  to  the  children  of  B . 

His  title  of  "Father"  had  no  ecclesiastical  significance,  for  he  was  only 
a  country  pack-pedler.     It  was  a  tribute  of  respect  for  his  age  and  of 


174  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

affection  for  his  kindly  character.  I  can  see  him  still  as  he  used  to 
come  up  the  single  street  of  the  little  town  with  a  troop  of  children  at 
his  heels.  He  always  wore  a  long  black  coat,  a  faded  velvet  waistcoat, 
and  a  loose  cravat  such  as  one  sometimes  sees  in  portraits  of  fifty  years 
ago.  His  white  hair,  worn  long  enough  to  fall  on  his  coat  collar,  and 
his  flat-brimmed  silk  hat  made  his  appearance  still  more  old-fashioned. 
His  face  had  the  clear,  rosy  complexion  of  healthy  old  age ;  his  eyes, 
a  little  dimmed  and  watery,  gleamed  kindly  through  his  huge  iron  spec- 
tacles ;  and  the  serious  lines  of  his  mouth  were  always  ready  to  break 
into  a  smile  at  the  antics  of  the  attendant  children.  Only  the  little 
pack  of  notions  supported  on  his  shoulder  prevented  the  passer-by  from 
taking  him  for  an  aged  clergyman  who  had  clung  to  the  fashions  of  his 
youth.  Father  Harley  has  been  long  in  his  grave,  but  I  am  sure  that 
none  of  the  boys  and  girls  who  once  clung  about  him  has  forgotten  his 
venerable  and  antiquated  figure. 

4.  A  Machine  for  Cleaning  Cranberries 
For  a  long  time  the  growers  of  cranberries  in  the  lowlands  of  New 
Jersey  and  other  cranberry-producing  localities  were  perplexed  over 
the  problem  of  how  to  separate  the  soft  and  worthless  fruit  from  the 
sound  berries  without  the  slow  and  expensive  method  of  picking  them 
all  over  by  hand.  The  cranberries,  as  they  come  from  the  bogs,  where 
they  have  been  raked  from  the  vines,  are  mixed  with  bad  berries,  leaves, 
and  other  impurities.  Some  years  ago  it  was  discovered  that  a  per- 
fectly sound  cranberry  is  a  remarkably  elastic  body.  When  it  falls 
from  a  height  it  rebounds  like  a  rubber  ball.  The  cleaning  machine 
takes  advantage  of  this  property.  The  mass  of  uncleaned  berries  is  led 
through  a  spout  sufficiently  inclined  to  allow  them  to  move  with  a 
moderate  speed.  From  the  end  of  the  spout  the  fruit  falls  several  feet 
upon  a  sheet  of  glass  which  is  slightly  inclined,  and  to  which  is  given, 
by  means  of  a  hand-wheel,  a  gentle  shaking  motion.  On  all  sides  of 
this  glass  rises  a  kind  of  wooden  partition  several  inches  high.  The 
sound  cranberries,  when  they  strike  the  glass,  rebound  nimbly  over 
this  partition  into  a  trough  which  leads  into  a  large  bin ;  while  the  soft 
berries  and  other  rubbish  do  not  rebound,  but  slide  down  over  the  glass 
into  a  waste-box  below  the  machine.  * 

5.  Honesty  in  College  Work 
There  is  one  phase  of  "  sponging  "  of  which  we  have  never  heard 
any  one  speak :  it  is  the  injustice  to  the  student  who  is  honest  in  all  his 


THE   PARAGRAPH   THEME  175 

college  work  both  in  the  class-room  and  in  examination.  At  the  pres- 
ent time  the  college  offers  cash  prizes  amounting  to  nearly  one  thou- 
sand dollars,  for  which  men  may  compete  during  their  course ;  and  the 
deciding  point  is  almost  entirely  a  matter  of  high  grades.  Again,  the 
faculty  is  just  now  making  a  trial  of  exemption  from  examination  in 
the  case  of  students  who  attain  a  certain  per  cent  in  their  class-room 
work.  Finally,  membership  in  the  honorary  fraternity  Phi  Kappa  Phi 
is  almost  entirely  a  question  of  high  grades.  Since  so  much  depends 
on  one's  class  standing,  it  seems  to  us  that  no  one  should  be  so  lost  to 
a  sense  of  honor  as  to  put  one  of  his  classmates  at  a  disadvantage  in 
order  to  help  or  to  save  himself.  It  seems  strange,  too,  that  one  man 
will  allow  another,  by  unfair  means,  to  gain  better  grades  and  thus 
stand  a  better  chance  fp/  material  benefits.  Surely  no  man  would, 
without  some  protest,  allow  another  to  steal  his  books  or  his  purse. 
Why,  then,  should  one  man  allow  another  to  steal  from  him  class  honors 
and  prizes  ?  If  college  men  will  not  be  honest  because  they  ought  to 
be,  they  certainly  should  be  forced  into  an  honest  course  by  those 
whom  they  wrong,  and  by  the  moral  sentiment  of  the  college  community. 

EXERCISES1 
I.  Write  a  narrative  paragraph  on  one  of  the  following  subjects :  — 

1.  An  Exciting  Experience.  14.  A  Schoolboy  Prank. 

2.  A  Comical  Situation.  15.  Almost  Arrested. 

3.  A  Pitiful  Story.  16.  Among  the  Fakirs. 

4.  An  Act  of  Kindness.  17.  Hauling  in  the  Net. 

5.  An  Heroic  Deed.  18.  How  I  Captured  a  Hornets' 

6.  An  Amusing  Incident.  Nest. 

7.  A  Bit  of  Adventure.  19.  One  of  my  Mistakes. 

8.  My  Father's  Favorite  Story.        20.  A  Skating  Adventure. 

9.  A  Street-car  Incident.  21.  A  Relic  of  the  War. 

10.  An  Introduction  to  the  Presi-      22.   My  Experience  with  a  Burg- 

dent,  lar. 

11.  A  Bicycle  Accident.  23.   My  Earliest  Recollection. 

12.  My  Experience  with  a  Runa-      24.   A  Mysterious  Story. 

way  Horse.  25.   The   Funniest   Story   I    ever 

13.  An  Unpleasant  Predicament.  Heard. 

1  After  the  writing  of  daily  paragraph  themes  has  begun,  the  student  may, 
throughout  his  course,  constantly  draw  upon  the  lists  of  subjects  given  in  this  group 
of  exercises. 


176  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

II.  Write  a  descriptive  paragraph  on  one  of  the  following  subjects, 
or  on  some  subject  suggested  by  the  following  list :  — 

1.  A  Busy  Street  Corner.  13.    In  an  Old  Book-store. 

2.  The  Village  Oracle.  14.   A  Peculiar  Person. 

3.  The  School  Bully.  15.   Waiting  for  the  Ferry-boat. 

4.  A  Local  Politician.  16.    The  Village  Crank. 

5.  A  Corner  in Park.  17.    A  Suspicious  Character. 

6.  An    Old-fashioned     Singing  18.    A  Wayside  Inn. 

School.  19.  A  Picturesque  Tramp. 

7.  Jerry  the  Policeman.  20.  In  a  Junk-shop. 

8.  MyDogFido.  21.  The  Village  Gossip. 

9.  The  Belle  of  the  Village.  22.  A  Wayside  Watering-trough. 

10.  A  Model  Farm.  23.    An  Old  Homestead. 

11.  Waiting  for  the  Mail.  24.   The  "  Best  Room." 

12.  The  House  across  the  Street.       25.   An  Old  Skinflint. 

III.  Each  of  the  following  brief  sentences  may  be  used  as  the  cen- 
tral thought  of  an  expository  paragraph.  Take  any  one  of  them  as  the 
subject  of  a  paragraph  theme  :  — 

1 .  Football  is  a  scientific  game. 

2.  It  does  not  pay  to  worry. 

3.  The  farmer's  life  is  the  most  healthful. 

4.  A  man's  face  and  bearing  are  an  index  to  his  character. 

5.  Is  criticism  a  good  thing? 

6.  College  life  is  strenuous. 

7.  Composition  is  a  difficult  art. 

8.  Lincoln  was  the  typical  American. 

9.  Human  life  is  the  subject-matter  of  literature. 

10.  The  habit  of  reading  is  a  valuable  help  in  composition  work. 

11.  A  student  has  particular  need  to  take  good  care  of  his  eyes. 

12.  Climate  influences  character. 

13.  The  wearing  of  Panama  hats  is  an  expensive  fad. 

14.  The  life  of  a  country  doctor  is  a  hard  one. 

15.  For  various  reasons  a  student  has  trouble  in  preparing  his  Mon- 
day lessons. 

16.  Accuracy  is  one  of  the  essentials  of  sound  scholarship. 

17.  A  coal  mine  is  a  dangerous  place. 

18.  A  student  needs  recreation. 

19.  Many  students  fail  in  their  work  because  they  are  too  fond  of  social 
pleasures. 


THE   PARAGRAPH   THEME  177 

20.  A  good  preparation  in  elementary  subjects  lightens  college  work. 

21.  Trout-fishing  is  an  art. 

22.  My  bicycle  is  a  great  convenience  to  me. 

23.  The  daily  newspaper  is  a  great  educator. 

24.  Mathematics  is  the  foundation  of  a  technological  education. 

25.  "The  true  university  of  these  days  is  a  collection  of  books." 
IV.  The  following  propositions  may  be  used  as  subjects  for  argument. 

Write  a  paragraph  theme  on  any  one  of  them  :  — 

1.  Examinations  should  be  abolished. 

2.  Vivisection  should  be  prohibited. 

3.  There  should  be  more  elective  studies  in  the  college  course. 

4.  Students  and  teachers  are  disposed  to  lay  too  much  stress  on 
examinations. 

5.  It  is  not  unpatriotic  to  buy  goods  that  are  made  abroad. 

6.  Stricter  entrance  examinations  should  be  given  to   men  who 
apply  for  admission  to College. 

7.  The  conduct  of  college  students  should  be  judged  by  the  same 
standards  as  that  of  other  young  men. 

8.  The  college  student  has  too  little  time  for  general  reading. 

9.  Gas  is  a  better  fuel  than  coal. 

10.  Should  attendance  at  chapel  be  compulsory? 

11.  Can  any  form  of  hazing  be  justified  ? 

12.  A  college  should  look  after  the  health  as  well  as  the  education  of 
its  students. 

13.  All  men  are  more  or  less  superstitious. 

14.  Teachers  are  not  adequately  paid. 

15.  All  electric  wires  in  cities  should  be  placed  under  ground. 

16.  A  successful  football  team  is  a  benefit  to  a  college. 

17.  The  college  library  should  be  open  on  Sunday. 

18.  It  is  useless  to  attempt  intercollegiate  debating  in  a  technological 
institution. 

19.  The  gymnasium  should  be  open  to  every  one  from  early  morning 
until  late  at  night. 

20.  Every  American  college  ought  to  offer  a  good  course  in  Spanish. 
V.   Write  a  paragraph  theme  on  some  topic  chosen  from  the  follow- 
ing list  of  miscellaneous  subjects  :  — 

1.  An  Historic  Spot.  4.   A  Mennonite  Meeting. 

2.  The  Main  Street  of .  5.    How    I     have    Planned    this 

3.  My  First  Lesson  in .  Week's  Work. 


178  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

6.  What  has  Become  of  Dewey?  24.    One  of  the  Compensations  of 

7.  An  Incident  of  the  Game.  a  Farmer's  Life. 

8.  A  Peculiar  Sect.  25.   The  Book  that  has  Helped  Me 

9.  A  Trip  on  a  Flatboat.  Most. 

10.  The   Value  of  Writing  Para-   26.   A  Curious  Custom. 

graph  Themes.  27.   The  Minister's  Donation 

11.  The  Importance  of  the  Study  Party. 

of  English  Composition.  28.  The  Critical  Inning. 

12.  A  Beautiful  Harbor.  29.  My  First  Chemical  Experiment. 

13.  One  of  the  Uses  of  Adversity.  30.  A  Costly  Mistake. 

14.  A  Village  Merry-making.  31.  The  Person  I  Know  Best. 

15.  The  Noon  Hour  on  the  Farm.  32.  An  Admirable  Character. 

16.  A  Chronic  Loafer.  33.  The  Daily  Chapel  Service. 

17.  A  Barn-raising.  34.  A  Morning  at  fhe   Teachers' 

18.  The  Country  Beau.  Institute. 

19.  Decoration  Day  in .  35.  A  Strange  Combat. 

20.  A  Peculiar  Superstition.  36.  My  Most  Difficult  Study. 

21.  My  Experience  with  a  Snake.  37.  A  Costly  Accident. 

22.  An   Afternoon  Walk   in   Au-  38.  A  Balky  Horse. 

tumn.  3Q.   My  Sensations  when  Themes 

23.  The    Advantages    of    a    Re-  are  Read  in  Class. 

stricted  Theme-subject.  40.   The  First  Wild  Flowers. 

VI.  Choose  some  subject  of  general  interest  to  the  college  commu- 
nity and  write  a  short  editorial  article  suitable  for  publication  in  the 
college  paper.  The  various  college  interests,  activities,  and  organiza- 
tions will  furnish  a  wide  range  of  subjects  for  editorial  comment.  The 
following  general  subjects  may  suggest  some  topic  for  an  editorial 
paragraph :  — 

The  football,  the  baseball,  and  the  basket-ball  teams  ;  tennis  tourna- 
ments, track  athletics,  indoor  gymnastics,  the  management  of  the  ath- 
letic organizations,  and  the  use  of  the  gymnasium ;  college  holidays  and 
vacations ;  the  college  library ;  objectionable  college  rules  and  prac- 
tices;  the  summer  school;  military  drill;  college  songs  and  musical 
organizations ;  intercollegiate  debating  and  oratorical  contests ;  the 
college  publications  ;  the  dramatic  club  ;  the  chapel  services  and  other 
public  gatherings ;  the  relations  between  students  and  faculty ;  com- 
mencement week ;  prizes  and  scholarships  ;  the  social  and  the  religious 
life  of  the  college. 


IV 

THE   SENTENCE 


CHAPTER  XIV 

CORRECTNESS 

A  simple  statement  contains  two  essential  elements, 
which  are  called  the  subject  and  the  predicate.  The  sub- 
ject is  the  person  or  the  thing  about  which  something  is 
said.  It  is  always  a  substantive,  —  that  is  to  say,  a  noun  or 
a  pronoun,  or  some  phrase  or  clause  used  as  a  noun.  Any 
words  or  phrases  used  to  modify  the  noun  or  pronoun 
belong  to  the  subject.  The  predicate  is  the  "  something  " 
which  is  said  about  the  subject.  It  consists  of  the  finite 
verb  with  all  its  modifiers  and  complements.  When  this 
combination  of  subject  and  predicate  stands  alone  and 
makes  a  complete  statement,  it  is  called  a  simple  sentence ; 
otherwise  it  is  called  a  clause.  For  example,  "  English 
grammar  is  a  formal  statement  of  the  decisions  of  Good 
Use  in  the  construction  of  sentences,"  is  a  simple  sentence. 
It  contains  but  a  single  subject,  "  English  grammar,"  and 
a  single  predicate,  "  is  a  formal  statement  of  Good  Use  in 
the  construction  of  sentences."  When  two  or  more  of 
these  simple  statements  are  joined  together  by  coordinate 
conjunctions,  such  as  and,  but,  or,  and  for,  the  sentence  thus 
formed  is  called  a  compound  sentence,  and  the  clauses  are 
said  to  be  coordinate.  "  Knowledge  comes,  but  wisdom 
lingers,"  is  a  compound  sentence  made  up  of  two  co- 
ordinate clauses.  A  clause  used  as  a  noun,  an  adjective, 
or  an  adverb,  is  said  to  be  subordinate  or  dependent.  A  sen- 
tence consisting  of  an  independent  clause  and  one  or  more 
dependent  clauses  is  called  a  complex  sentence.    The  simple 

181 


182  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

sentence  already  quoted  may  be  made  complex  by  the  ad- 
dition of  a  subordinate  clause :  "  English  grammar,  which 
most  schoolboys  study  as  a  part  of  their  elementary  education, 
is  a  formal  statement  of  Good  Use  in  the  construction  of 
sentences."  Grammatically  considered,  sentences  are  sim- 
ple, complex,  or  compound;  clauses  are  either  independent 
or  dependent.  A  phrase  is  a  group  of  words  which  does 
not  contain  a  predicate  verb ;  the  expression  "  grammati- 
cally considered  "  in  the  preceding  sentence  is  an  example. 

The  meaning  of  the  terms  commonly  used  in  grammar 
should  be  clear  to  every  student  of  Composition.  He  will 
find  it  necessary  to  use  these  terms  in  the  discussion  of  the 
grammatical  relations  that  exist  between  the  various  parts 
of  the  sentence.  In  addition  to  the  definitions  given  in 
the  preceding  paragraph,  he  should  know  exactly  what  is 
meant  by  such  technical  terms  as  noun,  pronoun,  verb, 
adjective,  adverb,  preposition,  conjunction,  number,  gender, 
person,  case,  tense,  mood,  voice,  direct  object,  i7tdirect  object, 
participles,  infinitives,  etc. 

Words,  phrases,  and  clauses  are  the  elements  out  of 
which  sentences  are  formed.  English  grammar  has  for- 
mulated the  rules  which  Good  Use  has  laid  down  for  the 
proper  combination  of  these  elements  into  sentences. 
Grammar  is  therefore  nothing  more  than  a  systematized 
record  of  Good  Use.  The  rules  of  grammar  are  rigid ;  we 
may  not  disobey  them.  In  most  questions  of  grammar  there 
is  an  absolute  standard  of  correctness :  a  given  construc- 
tion is  either  grammatical  or  ungrammatical,  either  correct 
or  incorrect.  The  student  of  Composition  may  not  with 
impunity  disregard  the  uniform  practice  of  the  best  writers ; 
he  must  obey  the  recognized  laws  of  the  language.  The 
man  who  attempts  to  speak  or  to  write  the  English  lan- 
guage   must    combine    words    according    to    the    English 


CORRECTNESS  1 83 

fashion.  Grammatical  purity  is  absolutely  essential  to 
good  English. 

That  it  is  not  an  easy  thing  to  write  without  occasion- 
ally violating  the  rules  of  grammar  is  a  fact  amply  demon- 
strated by  experience.  Many  text-books  on  Rhetoric  are 
filled  with  mistakes  made  by  eminent  writers  of  English. 
Few  there  are  who  never  lapse  into  occasional  solecisms, 
or  errors  in  grammar.  Yet  the  essentials  of  grammat- 
ical correctness  are  so  simple  and  easy  that  any  one 
can  master  them.  Although  errors  are  frequently  due 
to  ignorance,  they  are  more  commonly  the  result  of  in- 
advertence, haste,  or  carelessness.  Every  writer  must  be 
constantly  on  his  guard.  If  one  is  careful  and  watchful, 
especially  in  the  revision  of  his  work,  he  can  make  all  his 
sentences  conform  with  the  requirements  of  grammar.  The 
important  thing  to  remember  is  that,  in  order  to  avoid 
mistakes,  constant  vigilance  is  absolutely  necessary. 

"  To  avoid  solecisms  it  is  necessary  not  only  to  keep 
strictly  in  mind  English  usage  in  matters  of  grammar,  but 
also  to  beware  of  certain  common  errors,  and  to  know  why 
they  are  errors."  It  is  therefore  deemed  desirable  to  warn 
the  student  against  the  most  common  solecisms.  The  fol- 
lowing list  points  out  nearly  all  the  errors  that  he  is  likely 
to  fall  into.  He  should  examine  the  errors  specified  in 
this  list,  and  should  note  any  mistakes  that  he  has  been  in 
the  habit  of  making.  By  this  means  he  can  readily  ascer- 
tain his  own  faults ;  and  by  painstaking  effort  he  can  rid 
his  speech  and  his  writing  of  solecisms. 

1.  Plural  forms  should  not  be  used  as  if  they  were  singu- 
lar.    The  following  sentences  illustrate  common  errors :  — 

He  walked  a  short  ways  up  the  side  of  the  mountain. 
Near  the  river  there  is  a  large  dye  works. 
At  last  our  party  came  to  a  dense  woods. 


1 84  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

I  will  make  a  memoranda  of  your  request. 

Let  us  now  examine  this  peculiar  phenomena  a  little  more  closely. 

A  little  below  the  surface  we  found  a  strata  of  limestone. 

It  should  be  noted  that  news  and  molasses  are  singular. 
Means  and  species  are  either  singular  or  plural.  Nouns 
ending  in  -ics,  such  as  economics,  politics,  mathematics,  etc., 
with  the  possible  exception  of  athletics,  are  now  generally- 
treated  as  singular. 

2.  Singular  forms  should  ■  not  be  used  as  if  they  were 
plural.     The  following  sentences  are  incorrect :  — 

He  shot  seven  or  eight  duck  on  the  bay. 

He  hauled  from  the  lumber-yard  ten  large  plank. 

Bear  are  always  less  plentiful  than  pheasant  and  other  small  game. 

The  nouns  sheep,  deer,  trout,  shad,  heathen,  yoke,  pair,  and 
cannon  have  the  same  form  for  both  singular  and  plural. 

3.  The  subject  and  the  predicate  verb  should  agree  in 
number.  Common  violations  of  this  rule  arise  from  various 
causes.  Sometimes  intervening  words  and  details  obscure 
the  grammatical  subject.  Sometimes,  when  the  sentence 
begins  with  the  introductory  word  there,  or  with  some 
adverb  of  time  or  place,  and  when,  in  consequence,  the 
verb  precedes  the  subject,  there  is  danger  of  using  a  singu- 
lar verb  with  a  plural  subject.  Sometimes  a  plural  verb  is 
incorrectly  used  because  the  writer  forgets  that  such  ex- 
pressions as  with,  together  with,  combined  with,  as  well  as, 
including,  etc.,  are  not  conjunctions.  Sometimes  a  group 
of  different  things  possesses  a  kind  of  unity  which  leads 
the  writer  into  the  error  of  using  a  singular  verb.  The 
following  mistakes  are  typical :  — 

The  nature  of  his  duties  compel  him  to  do  many  unpleasant  things. 
At  ten  o'clock  the  President,  with  the  receiving  party,  which  usually 


CORRECTNESS  185 

consists  of  his  wife  and  the  wives  of  Cabinet  officers,  enter  the  Red 
Room  of  the  White  House. 

Thus  a  fair  knowledge  of  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometry  were 
obtained. 

A  box  of  cakes  and  candies  were  sent  to  me  at  Christmas. 

In  this  town  is  a  planing-mill,  a  tannery,  and  a  cigar  factory. 

In  almost  every  college  there  is  a  football  team,  a  baseball  team,  a 
glee-club,  and  similar  organizations. 

This  location,  combined  with  its  beautiful  scenery,  its  cool  breezes, 
and  its  pure  water,  make  it  an  ideal  spot  for  a  summer  home. 

Her  wit  as  well  as  her  pleasing  manners  make  a  favorable  impression 
on  all  who  meet  her. 

The  sallow  face,  the  stooped  shoulders,  and  an  occasional  absence 
from  class  reveals  to  his  teacher  the  fact  that  his  work  is  too  hard  for 
him. 

When,  however,  the  subject  is  plural  in  form  but  singu- 
lar in  meaning,  the  predicate  verb  should  be  in  the  singular  ; 
when  the  subject  is  singular  in  form  but  plural  in  meaning, 
the  verb  should  be  in  the  plural.  A  singular  verb  should 
be  used  with  a  collective  noun  when  the  group  is  regarded 
as  a  whole ;  a  plural  verb  when  the  individual  members  of 
the  group  are  thought  of.     The  following  are  correct:1  — 

The  end  and  aim  of  both  Hebraism  and  Hellenism  is,  as  I  have  said, 
one  and  the  same. 

The  crown  and  glory  of  life  is  character. 

In  early  times  the  great  majority  of  the  male  sex  were  slaves. 

The  class  is  now  at  work  in  the  laboratory. 

4.  The  writer  should  take  pains  not  to  omit  the  verb  or 
any  essential  part  of  it.  A  change  in  the  number  of  the 
subject  or  in  the  auxiliary  used  frequently  makes  it  neces- 

1  In  this  chapter  and  in  Chapters  XV  and  XVII,  the  author,  in  order  to  illustrate 
correctness,  unity,  and  effectiveness  in  the  structure  of  sentences,  has  taken  his 
examples  mainly  from  standard  English  and  American  prose- writers.  It  has 
seemed  unnecessary  to  give,  in  each  case,  the  name  of  the  author  and  of  the 
book  in  which  the  sentence  occurs. 


1 86  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

sary  to  use  a  different  form  of  the  verb.     The  following 
sentences  illustrate  common  faults :  — 

His  manners  were  faultless  and  his  character  A  excellent. 
My  young  friend  has  worked  industriously,  and  he  has  promised  his 
parents  that  he  always  will  A. 

He  will  perform  this  task  as  conscientiously  as  he  has  A  former  ones. 
I  was  born  and  reared  in  the  South,  you  A  in  the  North. 

5.  A  pronoun  should  agree  in  number  with  its  ante- 
cedent. Such  words  as  each,  every,  anybody,  nobody,  a 
person,  etc.,  are  always  singular.  When  they  are  used 
as  antecedents  the  pronouns  that  refer  to  them  should 
be  in  the  singular  number.  Solecisms  like  the  following 
occur  frequently :  — 

When  the  regiment  returned,  each  town  had  a  reception  for  their 
home  company. 

He  called  to  every  one  on  the  hand-car  to  jump  for  their  lives. 

I  have  always  thought  it  wise  to  let  everybody  attend  to  their  own 
business. 

We  decided  to  let  some  one  else  try  their  skill  at  the  game. 

Let  me  say  that  if  any  one  thinks  it  an  easy  task  to  act  as  manager 
of  a  baseball  team,  they  will  change  their  mind  as  soon  as  they  try  it. 

It  is  thought  that  a  fox  will  generally  run  faster  if  they  are  a  little 
hungry. 

6.  The  pronominal  adjectives  these  and  those  should  not 
be  used  with  kind  and  sort.  These  adjectives  are  plural  in 
number,  and  the  nouns  are  singular.  Use  this  kind  (or 
sort),  that  kind  (or  sort).     The  following  are  incorrect :  — 

I  despise  those  kind  of  people. 

I  find  it  difficult  to  correct  these  kind  of  sentences. 

7.  The  correlative  conjunctions  either  .  .  .  or,  neither 
.  .  .  nor,  are  disjunctive.  A  subject  consisting  of  two 
singular  nouns   joined   together  by  either   pair  of   these 


CORRECTNESS  1 87 

correlatives  should  be  followed  by  a  singular  verb ;  for 
these  conjunctions  distribute  rather  than  compound  the 
subject.  Or  should  not  be  used  as  a  correlative  of  neither. 
The  following  sentences  are  faulty :  — 

Either  the  education  he  received  at  school  or  the  training  he  received 
at  home  were  at  fault. 

Neither  the  fear  of  detection  or  family  pride  are  sufficient  to  restrain 
him. 

8.  The  articles  a  and  the  should  not  be  omitted  when 
they  are  necessary  to  the  sense.  Note  the  difference  in 
meaning  when  the  article  is  repeated  :  — 

1 .  a.  My  friend  had  a  black  and  white  dog. 
b.   My  friend  had  a  black  and  a  white  dog. 

2.  a.  Here  we  found  the  secretary  and  treasurer  of  the  insurance 
company  busily  at  work. 

b.   Here  we  found  the  secretary  and  the  treasurer  of  the  insurance 
company  busily  at  work. 

9.  The  objective  case  of  pronouns  should  not  be  used 
for  the  nominative  ;  and  the  nominative  should  not  be  used 
for  the  objective.  The  following  sentences  contain  com- 
mon solecisms :  — 

When  my  father  returned,  he  gave  my  sister  and  /a  box  of  figs. 
He  selected  the  man  whom  he  thought  was  best  fitted  for  the  position. 
He  knew  as  well  as  me  that  such  a  thing  was  not  permissible. 
This  responsibility  will  rest  on  whomsoever  happens  to  be  elected  to 
the  office. 

10.  The  possessive  case  should  not  be  used  with  nouns 
that  denote  inanimate  things.  The  use  of  the  possessive 
case  in  the  following  sentences  is  incorrect :  — 

New  York's  governor  became  President  of  the  United  States. 

A  good  deal  of  this  money  was  spent  for  the  laboratory's  equipment. 

In  a  few  years  this  man  became  Australia's  champion  prize-fighter. 


1 88  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

In  these  sentences,  of  New  York,  of  the  laboratory \  and  of 
Australia  should  take  the  place  of  the  possessive  forms. 
Such  phrases,  however,  as  a  week's  vacation,  last  year's 
zvork,  ten  minutes'  intermission,  the  laws  delay,  are  well 
established  idioms. 

ii.  The  relative  pronoun  which  is  used  to  refer  to 
things  and  to  animals,  but  not  to  persons.  The  relative 
who  is  generally  used  only  with  reference  to  persons.  The 
following  are  incorrect :  — 

Some  of  these  soldiers  which  we  saw  exercising  were  perfect  types  of 
manhood. 

Near  the  barn  were  several  frisky  colts,  who,  as  we  drew  near,  kicked 
up  their  heels  and  scampered  across  the  pasture. 

12.  Which  should  not  be  used  with  a  phrase  or  a  clause 
as  its  antecedent.  The  antecedent  of  a  relative  pronoun 
should  be  as  explicit  and  unmistakable  as  that  of  a  per- 
sonal pronoun.  The  following  sentences  illustrate  one  of 
the  most  common  faults  of  young  writers :  — 

He  consequently  sent  me  to  report  to  the  foreman,  which  I  did. 

At  times  these  young  men  became  very  noisy,  which  had  a  bad  influ- 
ence upon  the  others. 

The  citizens  keep  everything  neat  and  clean,  which  makes  this  town 
one  of  the  most  desirable  places  of  residence  in-the  state. 

About  eight  o'clock  the  cashier's  report  came  in,  and  then  I  began  to 
post  the  sales  of  the  preceding  day,  which  generally  kept  me  busy  until 
noon. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  good  writers  occasionally  make 
which  refer  to  a  phrase  or  a  clause  as  its  antecedent,  but 
the  construction  is  nevertheless  inelegant  and  faulty.  The 
best  usage  is  against  it.  In  correcting  this  fault  the  writer 
can  usually  supply  an  antecedent :  a  thing,  a  fact,  a  prac- 
tice, a  process,  or  some  similar  expression,  can  often  be  in- 


CORRECTNESS  189 

serted  just  before  the  relative  pronoun.    The  two  sentences 
which  follow  show  how  this  fault  may  be  corrected :  — 

The  citizens  keep  everything  neat  and  clean,  a  practice  which  makes 
this  town  one  of  the  most  desirable  places  of  residence  in  the  state. 

About  eight  o'clock  the  cashier's  report  came  in,  and  then  I  began 
to  post  the  sales  of  the  preceding  day,  a  task  which  generally  kept  me 
busy  until  noon. 

1 3.  A  relative  clause  should  be  coordinated  only  with  an- 
other relative  clause  —  never  with  a  mere  word  or  phrase. 
Before  a  relative  pronoun,  and  or  but  should  be  used  only  for 
the  purpose  of  joining  the  clause  that  follows  to  some  pre- 
ceding relative  clause.  The  faulty  "  and  which  "  construc- 
tion, illustrated  in  the  following  sentences,  is  a  solecism  of 
frequent  occurrence :  — 

To  the  west  extends  a  range  of  hills  covered  with  farmsteads,  and 
which  present  scenes  of  ever  changing  beauty. 

The  first  person  to  ask  for  something  was  a  little  man  with  high  top- 
boots  and  a  broad-brimmed  hat,  and  who  wore  a  heavy  beard. 

There  is  nothing  so  grand  nor  which  can  be  enjoyed  so  much  as  the 
works  of  nature. 

The  following  are  examples  of  correct  usage :  — 

The  books  which  were  ordered  last  week,  and  which  arrived  yester- 
day, have  been  placed  in  the  library. 

My  friend,  who  was  considerably  older  than  I,  and  who  had  been  a 
public-school  teacher  for  several  years,  helped  me  to  prepare  for  college. 

14.  An  adjective  should  not  be  used  for  an  adverb  ;  and 
an  adverb  should  not  be  used  for  an  adjective.  The  fol- 
lowing illustrate  common  errors  :  — 

This  event  occurred  previous  to  my  graduation  from  the  high  school. 
The  physicians1  bulletin  announced  that  King  Edward  was  some 
better  this  morning. 


190  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

The  pupils  in  this  class  behaved  so  bad  that  the  teacher  could  not 
control  them. 

What  distressed  me  most  was  a  streak  of  almost  cruelty  in  my 
friend's  character. 

This  measure  was  strongly  opposed  by  the  then  principal,  Mr.  Allen. 

15.  It  is  well  to  remember  that  in  English  two  negatives 
are  equivalent  to  an  affirmative,  as  in  the  sentence,  "  This 
method  was  not  unlike  the  one  that  we  followed."  The 
faulty  use  of  but,  hardly ',  or  scarcely  with  not  is  similar  to 
the  incorrect  use  of  two  negatives.  When  such  words  as 
not,  no,  none,  nothing,  never,  occur  in  the  first  member 
of  an  alternative  expression,  the  conjunction  or  should  be 
used  rather  than  nor  just  before  the  second  member;  as, 
"  Never  again  did  I  ask  this  man  to  help  me  or  to  show 
me  any  special  favor."  To  this  safe  general  rule,  however, 
there  are  occasional  exceptions.  Shakespeare,  for  instance, 
says,  "  I  love  him  not  nor  fear  him."  Nor,  in  the  sense  of 
and  not,  may  be  used  to  join  together  two  coordinate  nega- 
tive clauses ;  but  when  so  used,  it  furnishes  the  only  nega- 
tive needed  in  the  second  clause ;  as,  for  example,  "  Man 
does  not  stand  in  awe  of  man,  nor  is  his  genius  admon- 
ished to  stay  at  home."  The  following  sentences  illustrate 
several  common  mistakes  in  the  use  of  negatives  :  — 

Certainly  we  cannot  approve  of  the  practice  of  hazing,  no  more  than 
we  can  sanction  any  other  violation  of  one's  personal  rights. 

I  cannot  hardly  reconcile  myself  to  the  use  of  translations  in  the 
study  of  Latin  and  Greek. 

We  could  not  find  but  three  specimens  of  this  plant. 

I  then  decided  that  I  had  no  time  nor  money  to  devote  to  amuse- 
ments. 

16.  The  prepositions  without  and  except  and  the  adverbs 
like  and  directly  should  not  be  used  as  conjunctions.  The 
following  are  incorrect :  — 


CORRECTNESS  191 

Without-  you  give  the  most  careful  attention  to  this  preliminary 
work,  you  can  hardly  expect  to  succeed. 

He  said  that  he  could  not  grant  his  permission  except  we  promised 
to  return  before  ten  o'clock. 

He  told  me  that  there  would  be  no  trouble  if  I  did  my  work  carefully, 
just  like  all  the  other  men  did. 

Directly  the  procession  stopped,  the  cheering  began. 

In  the  foregoing  sentences,  unless  should  be  used  instead 
of  without  and  except ;  as  instead  of  like  ;  and  as  soon  as 
instead  of  directly. 

17.  When  the  comparative  degree  is  used,  the  subject 
of  comparison  should  be  excluded  from  the  class  with 
which  it  is  compared.  When  the  superlative  degree  is 
used,  the  subject  of  comparison  should  be  included  in  the 
class  with  which  it  is  compared.  When  only  two  things 
are  compared,  the  comparative  degree  should  be  used. 
The  following  errors  are  typical :  — 

No  President  had  a  harder  task  than  Washington. 

He  has  done  more  than  any  member  of  his  church  for  the  extension 
of  its  beneficent  work. 

Among  my  other  experiences  I  shall  always  consider  my  first  day's 
work  in  the  woods  as  one  of  the  hardest. 

Last  year  we  had  a  better  schedule  than  any  team  in  the  country. 

Of  these  two  courses  the  first  is  by  far  the  easiest. 

18.  "  Mixed  comparisons "  should  be  avoided.  The 
following  sentences  illustrate  a  common  error :  — 

The  freshman  football  team  is  as  good  if  not  better  than  that  of  the 
sophomores. 

After  the  "  reform  "  administration  municipal  politics  were  as  bad  or 
even  worse  than  before. 

It  is  not  always  an  easy  matter  to  correct  this  fault. 
When  the  missing  as  is  supplied,  the  construction  is  gram- 
matical but  awkward :  — 


192  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

After  the  "  reform  "  administration  municipal  politics  were  as  bad  as, 
or  even  worse  than  before. 

A  writer  will  usually  find  it  best  either  to  avoid  double 
comparisons,  or  to  complete  one  comparison  before  begin- 
ning another : — 

After  the  "  reform  "  administration  municipal  politics  were  as  bad  as 
before,  or  even  worse. 

19.  Than  should  not  be  used  after  different,  hardly,  or 
scarcely.  After  different  use  from;  after  hardly  and 
scarcely  use  when.     The  following  are  incorrect :  — 

The  end  of  this  game  was  somewhat  different  than  that  of  most 
games. 

Hardly  had  we  entered  the  town  than  it  began  to  rain  heavily. 

20.  But  that  should  not  be  used  for  that ;  and  but  what 
should  not  be  used  for  but  that.  Each  of  the  following 
sentences  illustrates  a  common-  fault :  — 

No  one  can  doubt  but  that  he  is  the  best  man  for  the  office. 
I  do  not  know  but  what  he  had  the  best  of  the  argument. 

21.  Sometimes  a  transitive  verb  is  incorrectly  used  for 
the  corresponding  intransitive  verb.  Set  is  wrongly  used 
for  sit,  lay  for  lie,  and  raise  for  rise.  The  careless  writer 
is  liable  to  make  mistakes  like  the  following  :  — 

We  all  assembled  under  the  shade  of  a  large  elm  and  set  down  to  a 
good  dinner. 

I  came  at  last  to  a  large  tree  laying  across  the  road. 

As  we  were  going  through  the  locks  the  boat,  instead  of  raising, 
began  to  sink,  as  if  it  had  sprung  a  leak. 

One  can  easily  avoid  such  mistakes  if  he  remembers  the 
principal  parts  of  each  of  these  verbs  :  set,  set,  set ;  sit,  sat, 
sat;  lay,  laid,  laid ;  lie,  lay,  lain;  raise,  raised,  raised; 
rise,  rose,  risen. 


CORRECTNESS  193 

22.  The  indicative  mood  should  not  be  used  for  the  sub- 
junctive. The  subjunctive  mood,  though  now  less  used 
than  formerly,  has  not  yet  disappeared  from  the  language. 
Its  common  use  is  to  indicate  some  degree  of  doubt  or 
to  express  an  unreal  supposition.  The  subjunctive  mood 
should  be  used  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

I  shouldn't  do  that  if  I  was  you. 

Then  my  companion  began  to  wish  that  he  was  home. 
Suddenly  the  reel  began  to  hum  as  though  it  was  run  by  machinery. 
If  hazing  was  entirely  abolished,  there  would  be  a  more  friendly 
spirit  among  the  students. 

23.  The  "split"  or  "cleft"  infinitive  is  frequently  pointed 
out  as  a  solecism.  An  adverb  or  adverbial  phrase  should 
not  be  allowed  to  split  the  infinitive  by  coming  between  to 
and  the  verb.  The  adverb  should  be  placed  either  before 
or  after  the  infinitive.  The  split  infinitive,  whether  it  be 
an  error  in  grammar  or  not,  is  generally  regarded  as  an 
awkward  and  inelegant  construction.  The  fault  is  illus- 
trated in  the  following  sentences:  — 

It  requires  much  care  to  properly  arrange  one's  ideas. 

I  have  been  unable  to  thoroughly  prepare  my  algebra  lesson. 

It  requires  several  years  to  fully  master  the  trade  of  wood-turning. 

24.  The  substantive  to  which  a  participial  phrase  refers 
should  always  be  expressed.  The  reference  should  be  clear 
and  unmistakable.  When  a  participle  refers  to  a  noun  or 
pronoun  which  does  not  occur  in  the  sentence,  or  which 
occupies  a  very  obscure  position,  it  is  left  without  any 
means  of  grammatical  or  logical  support.  Such  a  partici- 
ple has  been  aptly  called  a  "  dangling  participle."  There 
is  perhaps  no  solecism  more  common  than  this.  The  dan- 
gling participle  sins  against  both  grammar  and  coherence. 
The  following  sentences  contain  dangling  participles :  — 


194  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

Coming  up  the  main  walk,  the  Engineering  Building  is  seen. 

Hanging  on  a  limb,  we  could  see  a  hornets1  nest. 

Following  the  river  either  way,  it  could  be  seen  to  wind  around  a 
distant  elevation. 

After  living  thus  for  three  years,  the  farm  was  advertised  for  sale. 

Situated  as  it  is  in  the  centre  of  the  Pittsburg  coal  fields,  the  chief 
occupation  of  the  people  is  mining. 

Whenever  a  participial  phrase  stands  at  the  beginning  of 
a  sentence,  the  participle  should  refer  to  the  subject  of 
the  sentence.  By  applying  this  simple  test  to  the  foregoing 
sentences,  one  can  readily  see  why  they  are  vague  and  un- 
grammatical.  The  preceding  sentence  and  the  four  follow- 
ing sentences  illustrate  the  correct  use  of  the  attached 
participle :  — 

The  farms,  stripped  of  their  fences  and  deserted  by  their  owners,  had 
for  years  produced  only  weeds. 

The  wind,  roaring  round  its  broad  verandas,  hissing  through  every 
crevice  with  the  sound  and  force  of  steam,  appeared  to  waste  its  rage. 

Lying  down  on  the  grass,  I  spoke  in  my  soul  to  the  earth,  the  sun, 
the  air,  and  the  distant  sea  far  beyond  sight. 

They  came  and  went  restlessly,  sitting  down  and  knocking  their  steel 
scabbards  against  the  tables,  or  rising  and  straddling  with  their  long 
swords  kicking  against  their  legs. 

A  somewhat  different  form  of  the  dangling  participle  is 
seen  in  the  following  sentences  :  — 

It  had  been  warm  in  the  cave,  making  it  seem  all  the  cooler  now. 

The  rest  of  the  water  enters  the  spring  from  under  the  stone  wall, 
thus  showing  the  existence  of  an  underground  current. 

The  engine-cab  is  built  over  the  rear  end  of  the  boiler,  just  in  front 
of  the  fire-box,  thus  placing  the  engineer's  seat  nearly  twelve  feet  above 
the  rails. 

These  detached  or  "trailing"  participles,  thus  loosely 
tagged  to  the  end  of  the  sentence,  refer  rather  to  the  whole 


CORRECTNESS  195 

statement  than  to  any  single  noun  or  pronoun.  This  con- 
struction is  both  ungrammatical  and  ineffective. 

25.  A  participial  noun  should  not  be  used  as  if  it  were  a 
participial  adjective.  The  following  sentences  are  ungram- 
matical :  — 

The  danger  was  averted  by  the  brakeman  detaching  that  part  of  the 
train  which  was  on  fire. 

I  think  that  no  harm  can  result  from  a  student  being  required  \o 
attend  the  chapel  service. 

This  end  was  accomplished  by  the  president  giving  each  member  of 
the  society  a  question  to  be  answered  at  the  next  meeting. 

One  can  easily  correct  the  foregoing  sentences  by  putting 
the  nouns  brakeman,  student,  and  president  in  the  posses- 
sive case. 

26.  To  be  consistent  and  accurate  in  the  use  of  the  dif- 
ferent tenses  is  no  easy  matter.  Some  writers  err  because 
they  do  not  have  a  correct  understanding  of  the  exact 
function  of  each  tense.  Thoughtless  or  hurried  writers 
are  likely  to  make  unnecessary  and  confusing  changes  in 
tense.  Frequent  errors  arise  also  from  a  failure  to  observe 
the  proper  sequence  of  tenses.  The  time  expressed  by 
the  verb  in  a  dependent  clause  is  relative  to  the  time  ex- 
pressed by  the  verb  in  the  independent  clause.  A  past 
tense  in  the  independent  clause,  especially  in  indirect  dis- 
course, is  usually  followed  by  a  past  tense  in  the  dependent 
clause.  A  present  or  a  future  tense  is  generally  followed 
by  a  present  or  a  future  tense.  The  following  sentences 
illustrate  common  errors  in  tense  :  — 

I  immediately  wrote  that  it  will  give  me  pleasure  to  accept  his  invi- 
tation. 

Then  we  went  into  the  smoking  car  and  sat  down.  After  a  little 
while,  along  conies  a  newsboy  with  the  current  magazines. 


196  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

The  men  were  so  busy  at  their  work  that  they  can  hardly  find  time 
to  eat  their  dinner. 

I  wanted  to  have  taken  all  the  high  school  courses  in  the  natural 
sciences,  and  to  have  done  the  laboratory  work  as  well. 

27.  Every  writer  should  train  himself  to  make  the 
proper  distinctions  between  shall  and  willy  should  and 
would,  (a)  To  express  simple  futurity  in  statements  one 
should- use  the  following  forms:  I  shall,  you  will,  he  will; 
we  shall,  you  will,  they  will.     For  example :  — 

I  shall  take  a  walk  this  afternoon. 

If  you  look  closely,  you  will  notice  that  these  are  not  petals  at  all. 

I  am  sure  that  he  will  be  at  the  station  to  meet  you. 

(b)  When  one  wishes  to  make  a  statement  expressing 
determination,  command,  intention,  or  promise  on  the  part 
of  the  speaker,  he  should  use  the  following  forms  :  /  will, 
you  shall,  he  shall ;  we  will,  you  shall,  they  shall.  For 
example :  — 

I  will  see  that  this  does  not  happen  again. 

Then  he  said  to  the  child,  "  You  shall  have  what  you  want." 

They  shall  never  again  deceive  me  by  such  pretences. 

(c)  In  questions  one  should  use  that  form  which  may  be 
expected  in  the  answer.     For  example :  — 

Will  you  lend  me  these  books  for  a  few  days  ? 
Shall  he  do  this  with  impunity  ? 

(d)  When  a  statement  is  changed  from  the  direct  to  the 
indirect  discourse,  no  change  is  made  from  shall  to  will,  or 
from  will  to  shall.     For  example  :  — 

He  says  that  he  will  make  an  effort  to  be  present.  (His  exact  words 
were,  "  I  will  make  an  effort  to  be  present.") 

Then  the  teacher  told  me  that  I  should  have  to  learn  my  lesson. 
(His  exact  words  were,  "  You  shall  have  to  learn  your  lesson.") 


CORRECTNESS  197 

He  says  that  he  shall  be  too  busy  to  see  any  one.  (His  exact  words 
were,  "  I  shall  be  too  busy  to  see  any  one.") 

Should  and  would  generally  follow  the  same  rules  that 
govern  the  use  of  shall  and  will,  (a)  Should,  however, 
sometimes  means  ought ;  as,  e.g.,  "  Every  writer  should 
apply  the  rules  of  grammar  as  well  as  the  principles  of 
Rhetoric."  (b)  In  conditional  clauses  should  is  used  in 
the  sense  of  were  to;  as,  e.g.,  "If  the  wind  should  fall 
to-night,  and  if  at  the  same  time  it  should  become  colder, 
the  river  would  soon  be  covered  with  ice  as  smooth  as 
glass."  (c)  Sometimes  would  indicates  habitual  action;  as, 
e.g.,  "  Every  morning  my  brother  would  call  me,  and  we 
would  together  go  down  the  long  lane  and  drive  the  cows 
from  the  pasture  to  the  barn." 

In  the  following  sentences,  shall,  will,  and  woidd  are 
used  incorrectly :  — 

There  is  one  thing  that  I  shall  never  do  :  I  shall  never  undertake  a 
piece  of  work  that  I  cannot  perform. 

No  doubt  I  will  be  so  unfortunate  as  to  arrive  at  the  station  about 
midnight. 

I  did  this  because  I  thought  that  I  would  probably  meet  with  some 
accident  while  on  the  road. 

The  following  statement 1  will  furnish  further  explana- 
tion and  illustration  of  the  correct  distinction  between 
shall  and  will:  — 

Will  in  the  first  person  expresses  a  resolution  or  a  promise,  (a)  "  I 
will  not  go  ;  "  i.e.,  "It  is  my  resolution  not  to  go."  (b)  "  I  will  give  it 
you  ; "  i.e.,  "  I  promise  to  give  it  you."  Will  in  the  second  person 
foretells  :  "  If  you  come  at  twelve  o'clock,  you  will  find  me  at  home." 
Will  in  the  second  person,  in  questions,  anticipates  a  wish  or  an  inten- 
tion :  "  Will  you  go  to-morrow  ?  "  I  e.,  "  Is  it  your  wish  or  intention  to 

1  Adapted  from  Sir  Edmund  W.  Head's  little  book  on  "  Shall  and  Will." 
Quoted  in  A.  S.  Hill's  "  Principles  of  Rhetoric,"  page  40. 


198  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

go  to-morrow  ?  "  Will  in  the  third  person  foretells,  generally  implying 
an  intention  at  the  same  time,  when  the  nominative  is  a  rational  crea- 
ture :  "  He  will  come  to-morrow  "  signifies  (a)  what  is  to  take  place, 
and  (b)  that  it  is  the  intention  of  the  person  mentioned  to  come.  "  I 
think  that  it  will  snow  to-day  "  intimates  what  is  probably  to  take  place. 
Will  must  never  be  used  in  questions  with  nominative  cases  of  the  first 
person :  "  Will  we  come  to-morrow  ? "  i.e.,  "  Is  it  our  intention  or  desire 
to  come  to-morrow  ?  "  is  an  absurd  question. 

Would  is  subject  to  the  same  rules  as  will.  Would  followed  by  that  is 
frequently  used  (the  nominative  being  expressed  or  understood)  to  ex- 
press a  wish  :  "  Would  that  he  had  died  before  this  disgrace  befell  him  " 
is  equivalent  to  "  I  wish  that  he  had  died  before  this  disgrace  befell  him." 
Would  have,  followed  by  an  infinitive,  signifies  a  desire  to  do  or  make  : 
"  I  would  have  you  think  of  these  things  ;  "  i.e.,  "  I  wish  to  make  you 
think  of  these  things."  Would  is  often  used  to  express  a  custom  :  "  He 
would  often  talk  about  these  things  ; "  i.e.,  "  It  was  his  custom  to  talk 
about  these  things." 

Shall  in  the  first  person  foretells,  simply  expressing  what  is  to  take 
place  :  "  I  shall  go  to-morrow  ;  "  no  intention  or  desire  is  expressed  by 
shall.  Shall  in  the  first  person,  in  questions,  asks  permission  :  "  Shall 
I  read  ?"  means  "Do  you  wish  me,  or  will  you  permit  me,  to  read  ?" 
Shall  in  the  second  and  third  persons  expresses  a  promise,  a  command, 
or  a  threat :  (a)  "  You  shall  have  these  books  to-morrow  "  is  equivalent 
to  "  I  promise  to  let  you  have  these  books  to-morrow."  (0)  "  Thou 
shall  not  steal "  means  "  I  command  thee  not  to  steal."  (c)  "  He  shall 
be  punished  for  this  "  means  "  I  threaten  or  promise  to  punish  him  for 
this  offence." 

Should  is  subject  to  the  same  rules  as  shall.  Should  frequently 
expresses  duty :  "  You  should  not  do  so  "  ;  i.e.,  "  It  is  your  duty  not  to 
do  so."  (Or,  "You  ought  not  to  do  so.")  Should  often  signifies  a 
plan :  "  I  should  not  do  so  "  ;  i.e.,  "  It  would  not  be  my  plan  to  do  so." 
Should  often  expresses  a  supposition :  "  Should  they  not  agree  to  the 
proposals,  what  must  I  do  ? "  The  conditional  clause  means,  "  Suppose 
that  it  happen  that  they  will  not  agree  to  the  proposals." 

EXERCISES 
» 

I.  Write  a  theme  on  one  of  the  subjects  found  in  List  I,  Appendix 
K,  or  on  some  subject  suggested  by  this  list. 

II.  Criticise  and  correct  the  following  sentences  :  — 


CORRECTNESS  199 

1.  I  then  took  up  English  literature,  a  much  more  interesting  study 
than  mathematics,  and  which  I  therefore  took  more  pleasure  in. 

2.  Every  star  in  the  heavens  had  apparently  come  forth  to  have  one 
more  peep  at  the  world  before  daylight  drives  them  all  to  their  retreat. 

3.  While  enjoying  a  cigar  after  luncheon,  clouds  began  to  gather 
and  we  decided  to  go  no  farther. 

4.  Such  was  the  character  and  such  the  peculiarities  of  some  of  the 
men  which  I  met  on  my  tour  across  the  plains. 

5.  "It  don't  make  any  difference,"  he   replied  angrily;   "I  shall 
never  agree  to  such  an  arrangement." 

6.  As  I  was  born  and  reared  in  a  seaboard  town,  I  have  always  been 
keenly  sensitive  to  the  ocean's  beauties. 

7.  These  pioneers  were  all  men  of  Puritan  principles  like  their 
fathers  were. 

8.  There  are  many  thriving  towns  near,  which  is  an  advantage  it  has 
over  many  older  cities  of  its  size. 

9.  Although  our  algebra  was  not  as  difficult,  we  found  it  less  interest- 
ing than  history. 

10.  To  fail  in  an  examination  may  prove  to  be  a  lesson  of  consider- 
able value,  and  which  is  likely  to  show  one  the  necessity  of  preparing 
his  lessons  every  day. 

1 1 .  Certainly  the  inexperienced  man  cannot  do  this  work  as  good 
as  the  man  who  has  had  a  thorough  training. 

12.  Probably  more  games  will  be  played  in  town  this  year  than  in 
former  years,  thus  doing  a  great  deal  to  arouse  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
student  body. 

13.  No  one  would  take  the  time  and  pains  to  study  a  subject  unless 
he  thinks  that  it  will  be  of  some  use  to  him. 

14.  In  order  to  get  men  to  work  for  him,  this  contractor  was  obliged 
to  pay  as  much  if  not  more  than  his  fellow-contractors  pay. 

15.  If  I  should  be  at  home  on  New  Year's  Day,  I  will  probably  call 
on  my  friends. 

16.  These  factories  tend  to  not  only  increase  the  population  of  the 
city,  but  to  also  make  it  more  widely  known. 

17.  After  chatting  a  half-hour  with  my  friends,  they  bade  me  good 
night.  When  they  were  gone,  I  went  into  my  room  and  laid  down  to 
rest. 

18.  Volcanic  phenomena  has  aroused  a  good  deal  of  discussion  since 
the  destructive  eruption  of  Mont  Pelde. 


200  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

19.  On  this  pillar  is  cut  the  image  of  the  king  worshipping  the  sun 
god,  and  two  hundred  and  eighty  separate  laws  in  forty-four  columns. 

20.  In  laying  a  concrete  walk,  the  most  important  thing  is  to  get  a 
solid  foundation. 

21.  Finally,  when  the  last  boards  were  carefully  fitted  together  and 
the  last  nail  driven,  the  stairs  were  completed,  which  finished  my  work. 

22.  The  white  of  the  snow,  contrasted  with  the  colors  of  the  water 
and  the  evergreen  trees,  form  a  scene  long  to  be  remembered. 

23.  I  can't  hardly  decide  whether  I  shall  spend  the  summer  vacation 
in  the  mountains  or  at  the  seashore. 

24.  Being  on  the  main  line  of  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna,  and  West- 
ern Railroad,  its  other  industries  are  given  wide-open  doors  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Great  Lakes. 

25.  The  next  spring  a  track  team  was  organized  and  by  good  coach- 
ing were  enabled  to  beat  several  of  the  strongest  teams  in  the  state. 

26.  As  it  is  a  rule  with  me  always  to  choose  the  least  of  two  evils,  I 
wrapped  myself  in  my  blanket  and  laid  down  to  sleep. 

27.  This  was  kept  up  during  the  whole  journey,  stopping  every  few 
miles  until  we  could  get  more  steam. 

28.  In  another  quarter  of  an  hour  every  one  had  retired  to  their  own 
rooms. 

29.  This  newspaper  contains  frequent  reference  to  Philadelphia's 
corrupt  politics. 

30.  It  has  no  railroad  or  trolley  connections  with  surrounding  towns 
and  cities,  which  prevents  it  from  decreasing  in  population. 

31.  On  either  side  of  the  town,  the  Alleghany  Mountains  raise  to  a 
height  of  fifteen  hundred  feet. 

32.  The  walls  seem  to  gradually  fade  into  the  blue  vault  overhead. 

33.  I  saw  that  unless  I  rode  faster  I  would  not  reach  Topeka  that  day. 

34.  I  then  learned  the  places  where  each  of  these  articles  were  kept. 

35.  No  one  can  say  but  what  our  football  team  has  made  an  enviable 
record  during  the  past  season. 

36.  We  soon  discovered  that  it  was  a  long  ways  to  the  top  of  the 
mountain. 

37.  In  certain  localities,  by  chipping  off  a  few  layers  of  the  rock,  many 
beautiful  fossils  of  ferns  and  other  plants  are  found. 

38.  Scarcely  had  we  entered  the  zoological  garden  and  began  to  look 
around  us  than  we  were  startled  by  a  loud  roar,  followed  by  a  commo- 
tion in  the  building  where  the  wild  beasts  were  housed. 


CORRECTNESS  201 

39.  We  certainly  studied  as  hard  for  this  teacher,  if  not  harder,  than 
for  any  teacher  in  the  school. 

40.  Those  kind  of  labor  agitators  really  hurt  the  cause  which  they 
profess  to  serve. 

41.  On  approaching  the  town,  the  first  thing  that  attracts  the  at- 
tention of  the  traveller  is  the  beautiful  buildings  of  the  state  Normal 
School. 

42.  This  new  work  on  pedagogy  was  dedicated  to  Dr.  William 
Harris,  America's  greatest  educator. 

43.  I  then  and  there  made  up  my  mind  that  this  would  never  happen 
again. 

44.  A  house  and  barn  have  recently  been  built  on  this  property. 

45.  When  we  parted,  he  said  that  he  would  have  liked  to  have  ac- 
companied me  on  the  journey. 

46.  The  buildings  being  widely  scattered  gives  one  the  impression 
of  the  town  being  much  larger  than  it  really  is. 

47.  It  is  impossible  to  thoroughly  go  over  the  whole  subject  in  the 
allotted  time. 

48.  We  had  no  sooner  reached  the  end  of  the  path  when  the  rain 
began  to  fall  in  torrents. 

49.  The  frog  lays  on  the  top  of  the  water  among  the  weeds,  and  as 
the  light  falls  upon  their  eyes,  they  are  momentarily  blinded.  It  is 
then  struck  with  a  paddle  and  killed. 

50.  Before  going  to  college,  my  father  told  me  that  he  will  not  cut 
down  my  allowance  except  he  finds  it  absolutely  necessary. 

51.  It  is  clear  that  everybody  cannot  follow  out  their  own  way  of 
doing  things. 

52.  I  then  employed  a  tutor  whom  I  had  reason  to  believe  was  com- 
petent to  teach  me  geometry  and  algebra. 

53.  When  I  heard  the  noise,  I  thought  it  was  caused  by  a  rattle- 
snake, although  I  had  never  heard  of  any  being  in  that  vicinity. 

54.  Our  team  at  last  obtained  the  ball  and  rushed  through  their 
centre  again  and  again,  which  soon  resulted  in  a  touch-down. 

55.  After  I  entered  college,  I  found  that  there  was  not  near  as  many 
students  without  conditions  as  I  had  thought. 

56.  If  this  pony  was  like  the  one  I  had  at  first,  I  would  not  have 
sold  it. 

57.  As  the  traveller  goes  through  Bavaria  he  finds  a  crucifix  at 
almost  every  cross-roads. 


202  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

58.  Running  a  pump  in  mines  is  often  a  difficult  job ;  but  when  they 
are  in  good  condition  the  work  is  easy. 

59.  Before  setting  the  apple  tree  in  the  hole,  all  its  branches  except 
four  are  cut  off. 

60.  It  soon  became  evident  that  if  nothing  was  done  to  save  it,  the 
house  would  burn  too. 

61.  The  mountain  range,  which  stretches  far  to  the  north  and  south, 
with  the  river  winding  along  at  its  base,  and  with  the  numerous  towns 
and  villages  which  dot  its  banks,  present  a  magnificent  view  to  the 
observer. 

62.  When  thus  placed,  the  water  flows  freely  between  the  stones. 

63.  Above  this  there  is  a  belt  of  barren  land,  a  few  weather-beaten 
pines,  and  an  immense  amount  of  rocks. 

64.  It  was  necessary  for  me  to  take  the  readings  with  care,  which 
for  several  days  I  found  rather  difficult  work. 

65.  This  lad  did  not  carouse  and  dissipate  like  the  majority  of  us  did. 

66.  Coming  into  the  town  on  the  railroad,  the  first  thing  that  is  seen 
is  the  flagpole,  over  a  hundred  feet  high. 

67.  Some  of  the  seniors  soon  became  alarmed  at  so  many  juniors 
being  around; 

68.  The  earthworm  is  sensitive  to  the  light.  Although  they  have  no 
eyes,  they  are  nevertheless  in  some  mysterious  way  affected  by  the  light. 

69.  After  returning  from  our  camping  expedition,  things  remained 
quiet  until  a  three  days'  trip  on  our  wheels  was  proposed. 

70.  At  the  banquet  which  was  given  in  Prince  Henry's  honor,  the 
soldier  and  sailor,  the  merchant  and  broker,  the  orator  and  statesman, 
the  poet  and  scholar,  all  sat  down  together. 

71.  This  boy  always  treated  me  as  if  I  was  in  some  way  answerable 
to  him  for  my  actions. 

72.  The  town  can  be  reached  by  railroad  from  almost  any  point  in 
the  surrounding  country,  thus  making  Mahaffey  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant business  centres  in  Clearfield  County. 

73.  This  is  the  kind  of  an  athlete  that  every  one  admires. 

74.  I  then  rented  three  or  Your  rooms  as  a  dwelling-place  for  mother 
and  I. 

75.  I  always  have  and  I  always  will  maintain  that  the  most  impor- 
tant part  of  one's  education  is  not  learned  in  school  and  college. 

76.  If  the  carriage  had  turned  to  the  other  side,  we  would  have  been 
hurled  out  and  probably  killed. 


CORRECTNESS  203 

yj.  On  the  8th  of  August,  1778,  James  Brady,  with  fifteen  men,  were 
guarding  a  party  of  settlers,  who  were  at  work  in  the  fields. 

78.  As  I  was  looking  out  of  the  car-window  on  my  way  home,  who 
do  you  think  I  happened  to  see? 

79.  This  affair  ended  a  little  different  than  most  cases  of  the  kind 
generally  do. 

80.  I  was  setting  with  a  boy  considerably  older  than  myself,  and  who 
told  me  that  I  should  have  to  wait  until  the  other  boys  had  left  the 
room  before  I  could  go. 

81.  Then  follows  an  hour  of  study  and,  if  enough  time  is  left,  a  short 
walk  before  breakfast. 

82.  I  was  not  sorry  that  I  took  the  trip  to  Mount  Tom. 

83.  The  library  has  the  pleasantest  location  of  any  other  room  in  the 
building. 

84.  After  the  chores  are  done  and  everything  closed  up  for  the  night, 
the  evenings  were  generally  spent  in  reading  and  playing  games. 

85.  When  going  along  river  banks  or  creeks,  fossils  may  be  seen 
very  frequently,  having  perhaps  been  carried  there  by  the  water  from 
some  distant  place. 

86.  I  believe  that  every  one  should  live  and  dress  suitable  to  their 
income. 

87.  Neither  my  father  or  my  mother  were  at  first  reconciled  to  my 
going  to  college. 

88.  It  may  safely  be  said  that  the  French  people  are  more  fickle,  and 
the  French  government  more  unstable  than  any  European  nation. 

89.  I  took  part  in  a  number  of  athletic  games,  and  these  coming 
every  evening  after  school  made  it  impossible  for  me  to  put  the  neces- 
sary amount  of  time  on  my  studies. 

90.  The  sewerage  system  of  this  city  is  as  near  perfect  as  can  well 
be  made. 

91.  Because  of  the  town's  increase  in  population  the  primary  schools 
are  becoming  crowded,  thus  hindering  the  young  people  from  receiving 
the  attention  they  deserve. 

92.  The  spectator  of  the  game  raises  to  his  feet  and  waits  in  breath- 
less excitement. 

93.  I  then  go  to  my  room  and  get  the  books  that  I  will  need  during 
the  forenoon. 

94.  A  certain  writer  has  remarked  that  it  is  difficult  in  some  cases  to 
distinguish  between  an  interrogative  and  exclamatory  sentence. 


204  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

95.  As  I  set  there  on  the  beach,  I  noticed  some  large  cables  laying 
near  the  edge  of  the  water. 

96.  My  father  being  a  tailor  accounts  for  the  number  of  spools  and 
empty  boxes  which  I  accumulated. 

97.  The  students  would  then  all  try  to  at  least  make  a  grade  of 
eighty-five  per  cent. 

98.  The  location  and  scenery  of  the  college  was  beautiful,  but  I 
would  not  be  permitted  to  enjoy  it. 

99.  Then  he  expressed  his  regret  that  he  could  not  help  us  nor 
serve  us  in  any  way. 

100.  Careful  attention  to  these  points  always  enable  the  football 
player  to  use  his  strength  to  the  best  advantage. 

101.  This  candidate  believed  that  his  chances  of  reelection  might  be 
injured  if  it  was  generally  known  that  he  voted  against  the  appropria- 
tion. 

102.  The  young  man  who  has  stood  at  the  head  of  his  class  in  the 
high  school  never  doubts  but  what  he  will  make  a  record  in  scholarship 
when  he  goes  to  college. 

103.  The  first  two  years  are  devoted  largely  to  preparatory  work, 
thus  giving  one  a  thorough  preparation  for  the  studies  of  the  last  two 
years. 

104.  These  men  then  removed  the  furniture  and  the  carpet,  so  as  to 
entirely  clear  the  room. 

105.  There  is  therefore  no  danger  of  the  ladder  breaking  when  in  use. 

106.  The  building  where  the  animals  are  slaughtered  and  the  meat 
sold  is  not  very  large. 

107.  Then  he  turned  around  and  said,  "What  would  you  do  if  you 
were  me  ?  " 

108.  The  land  on  which  the  town  is  built,  and  the  surrounding  coun- 
try, is  nearly  level. 

109.  His  death,  which  has  made  that  home  desolate,  was  caused  by 
cutting  himself  in  the  leg  with  an  ax  while  chopping  a  limb  from  a 
tree. 


CHAPTER   XV 
UNITY   OF   THE   SENTENCE 

According  to  the  principle  of  Unity  a  sentence  should 
contain  but  one  thought.  Just  as  the  whole  composition 
is  usually  made  up  of  a  number  of  related  paragraphs, 
which  are  not  only  parts  of  the  same  general  subject,  but 
also  distinct  units  in  themselves,  so  the  paragraph  is  usu- 
ally composed  of  a  number  of  sentences,  each  of  which 
not  only  contributes  to  the  development  of  the  paragraph- 
topic,  but  also  gives  expression  to  a  single  distinct  thought. 
Both  the  grammarian  and  the  rhetorician  recognize  the 
sentence  as  a  unit.  It  may,  in  fact,  be  defined  as  the 
verbal  expression  of  a  single  thought.  It  may  contain 
but  a  single  word,  or  it  may  .  contain  a  hundred  words 
or  more.  It  may  consist  of  one  simple  statement ;  or  of  a 
single  statement  qualified  by  phrases  and  clauses;  or  of 
several  coordinate  statements  so  intimately  related  as  to 
form  but  a  single  unit.  In  other  words,  a  sentence  may 
be  either  long  or  short;  it  may  be  simple,  complex,  or 
compound.  Neither  its  length  nor  its  complexity  neces- 
sarily destroys  its  unity. 

For  both  the  reader  and  the  writer  the  sentence  is  the 
most  natural  and  convenient  unit  of  expression.  The 
faithful  application  of  the  principle  of  Unity  to  the  con- 
struction of  sentences  is  therefore  likely  to  be  helpful  to 
the  writer  himself  as  well  as  to  the  reader.  The  prac- 
tical value  of  this   principle  has  been  well  explained  by 

205 


206  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

Mr.  Henry  G.  Pearson  in  his  excellent  little  book,  "  The 
Principles  of  Composition." 

"  From  the  reader's  point  of  view,"  he  says,  "  the  prin- 
ciple that  every  sentence  should  be  a  unit  is  one  of  the 
greatest  importance.  For  him,  generally  speaking,  the 
length  of  one  sentence  measures  the  amount  that  he  com- 
prehends at  one  time.  He  takes  in  a  sentence  at  a  glance, 
and  takes  it  in  as  a  whole.  If,  now,  what  it  brings  to  him 
is  not  a  whole,  if  it  forms  an  incomplete  statement,  or  two 
statements  crowded  together,  the  reader  does  not  get  from 
the  unit  of  expression  a  unit  of  thought.  In  order  that 
there  may  be  no  confusion  of  this  sort  in  his  mind,  each 
group  of  words  that  represents  a  sentence  should  repre- 
sent also  one  idea,  no  more  and  no  less.  In  this  way 
each  thought  is  shown  complete  and  single,  an  indepen- 
dent thing  separated  from  everything  else. 

"  From  the  writer's  point  of  view,  also,  the  principle  of 
Unity  is  one  of  especial  and  practical  consequence.  By 
its  means  he  is  able  to  make  a  separation  of  his  ideas,  to 
recognize  one  idea  as  it  stands  by  itself,  and  finally,  isolat- 
ing it,  so  to  say,  in  a  single  sentence,  to  make  its  unity 
evident  to  the  reader.  By  this  principle  he  decides  what 
modifications  and  qualifications  do  and  what  do  not  belong 
to  a  sentence,  and  accordingly  by  it  he  tests  words, 
phrases,  and  clauses.  For  the  writer,  thenj  the  principle 
of  Unity  as  applied  to  the  sentence  performs  a  twofold 
service.  It  teaches  him  to  recognize  a  thought  as  a  unit 
to  be  expressed  in  one  sentence,  and  it  forms  a  test  by 
which  may  be  detected  in  that  sentence,  when  it  is  written, 
the  presence  of  any  word  or  phrase  that  is  irrelevant."  1 

A  sentence  may  be  compared  to  a  physical  organism. 

i"The  Principles  of  Composition,"  by  Henry  G.  Pearson,  page  83.  D.  C. 
Heath  and  Company.     Quoted  by  permission. 


UNITY  OF  THE   SENTEN< 


An  organism  has  been  defined  as  "a  living  body,  com- 
posed of  different  organs  or  parts  with  functions  that  are 
separate,  but  mutually  dependent,  and  essential  to  the  life 
of  the  individual."  A  living  creature  that  lacks  certain 
essential  parts,  or  that  possesses  unnatural  members,  or 
that  is  abnormally  joined  to  another  creature,  is  regarded 
as  a  monstrosity.  Such  a  creature  lacks  organic  unity. 
It  is  either  less  or  more  than  a  complete  organism.  So  it 
is  with  the  sentence.  Each  part  has  its  separate  function  ; 
yet  all  the  parts  are  related,  and  all  are  essential  to  the 
organic  unity  of  the  whole.  If  any  essential  member  is 
lacking,  or  if  any  unnatural  or  irrelevant  part  is  added, 
the  result  is  either  more  or  less  than  a  unit.  When  a  sen- 
tence possesses  unity,  every  clause,  every  phrase,  every 
word  that  it  contains  forms  an  integral  part  of  the  whole. 
The  sentence  is,  in  fact,  an  organism,  and  its  unity  de- 
pends upon  the  organic  relation  of  its  parts. 

The  student  will  perhaps  better  understand  the  organic 
unity  of  the  sentence  and  the  organic  relation  of  its  parts  if 
he  will  take  pains  to  analyze  sentences  and  to  notice  how 
they  grow.  Each  of  the  following  six  sentences  possesses 
unity.  At  first  the  thought  is  conceived  quite  simply. 
Then,  by  the  addition  of  various  modifiers,  it  gradually 
becomes  more  and  more  complex  :  — 

1.  He  was  a  great  favorite  among  all  the  good  wives  of  the  village. 

2.  He  was  a  great  favorite  among  all  the  good  wives  of  the  village, 
who  took  his  part  in  all  family  squabbles. 

3.  He  was  a  great  favorite  among  all  the  good  wives  of  the  village, 
who,  as  is  usual  with  the  amiable  sex,  took  his  part  in  all  family 
squabbles. 

4.  He  was  a  great  favorite  among  all  the  good  wives  of  the  village, 
who,  as  is  usual  with  the  amiable  sex,  took  his  part  in  all  family 
squabbles  and  never  failed  to  lay  all  the  blame  on  Dame  Van  Winkle. 

5.  He  was  a  great  favorite  among  all  the  good  wives  of  the  village, 


208  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

who,  as  is  usual  with  the  amiable  sex,  took  his  part  in  all  family 
squabbles  and  never  failed,  whenever  they  talked  those  matters  over  in 
their  evening  gossipings,  to  lay  all  the  blame  on  Dame  Van  Winkle. 

6.  Certain  it  is  that  he  was  a  great  favorite  among  all  the  good  wives 
of  the  village,  who,  as  is  usual  with  the  amiable  sex,  took  his  part  in  all 
family  squabbles  and  never  failed,  whenever  they  talked  those  matters 
over  in  their  evening  gossipings,  to  lay  all  the  blame  on  Dame  Van 
Winkle.1 

In  the  foregoing  sentences  an  effort  has  been  made  to 
mark  the  stages  in  the  growth  of  a  sentence.  The  sixth 
sentence  is,  like  the  first,  an  organism,  but  it  is  a  far  more 
complex  organism.  The  student,  of  course,  knows  that  in 
the  actual  composition  of  a  given  sentence  the  human 
mind  often  works  so  rapidly  that  it  is  impossible  to  recog- 
nize the  various  distinct  steps  in  the  conception  and  the 
expression  of  thought. 

The  writer  is  often  at  a  loss  to  know  just  how  much  he 
should  put  into  a  single  sentence.  He  is  not  likely  to 
violate  the  principle  of  Unity  so  long  as  he  makes  each 
sentence  consist  either  of  a  single  independent  statement 
with  all  its  necessary  modifications  and  qualifications,  or  of 
several  coordinate  statements  so  closely  related  in  thought 
that  they  possess  organic  unity.  The  six  sentences  which 
have  just  been  cited  are  good  examples  of  the  first  type  of 
sentence.  Each  of  them  contains  a  single  independent 
statement  and  the  various  modifying  and  dependent  ele- 
ments that  belong  to  it.  So  far  as  the  unity  of  the  sen- 
tence is  concerned,  it  makes  no  difference  whether  the 
dependent  members  are  merely  words  and  phrases,  or 
subordinate  clauses.  It  is  not  always  so  easy,  however, 
to  apply  the  principle  of  Unity  to  compound  sentences 
as  it  is  to  simple  and  to  complex  sentences.     The  several 

1  This  sentence  is  quoted  from  Irving's  "  Rip  Van  Winkle." 


UNITY  OF  THE   SENTENCE  209 

coordinate  clauses  which  are  joined  together  in  a  compound 
sentence,  should  be  so  closely  and  intimately  related  that 
they  possess  organic  unity.  When  coordinate  clauses  are 
thus  organically  related,  they  form  natural  and  necessary 
parts  of  the  same  sentence.  In  each  of  the  following  com- 
pound sentences,  the  student  will  readily  see  the  natural 
relation  of  the  coordinate  clauses  and  the  organic  unity  of 
the  whole :  — 

1.  In  cities  we  study  those  around  us,  but  in  the  retirement  of  the 
country  we  learn  to  know  ourselves. 

2.  This  brook  has  ever  since  been  considered  a  haunted  stream,  and 
fearfjl  are  the  feelings  of  a  schoolboy  who  has  to  pass  it  alone  after 
dark. 

3.  I  could  brook  condescension  from  my  father,  for  I  looked  upon 
him  with  awe  as  a  superior  being ;  but  I  could  not  brook  patronage 
from  my  brother,  who,  I  felt,  was  intellectually  my  inferior. 

4.  Marble  columns  may  indeed  moulder  into  dust,  time  may  erase  all 
impress  from  the  crumbling  stone,  but  their  fame  remains;  for  with 
American  liberty  it  arose,  and  with  American  liberty  only  can  it  perish. 

All  sentences  are  either  periodic  or  loose.  A  sentence, 
the  meaning  of  which  is  incomplete  until  the  last  word  is 
reached,  is  called  a  periodic  sentence.  The  foregoing  is  an 
example.     The  following  sentences  are  also  periodic  :  — 

1.  In  the  construction  of  this  bridge,  the  great  discoveries  of  chem- 
istry, the  nature  of  gases,  the  properties  of  metals,  the  laws  and  pro- 
cesses of  physics,  from  the  strains  and  pressures  of  mighty  masses  to 
the  delicate  vibrations  of  molecules,  have  all  been  recorded. 

2.  While  a  considerable  part  of  the  army  of  Bengal  was  thus  en- 
gaged at  a  distance,  a  new  and  formidable  danger  menaced  the  frontier. 

3.  When  Tamerlane  had  finished  building  his  pyramid  of  seventy 
thousand  human  skulls,  and  was  seen  standing  at  the  gate  of  Damas- 
cus, glittering  in  his  steel,  with  his  battle-ax  on  his  shoulder,  till  his 
fierce  hosts  filed  put  to  new  victories  and  carnage,  the  pale  looker-on 
might  have  fancied  that  nature  was  in  her  death-throes. 


2IO  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

It  will  be  noticed  that  not  one  of  these  sentences  is  either 
logically  or  grammatically  complete  until  the  period  is 
reached. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  the  meaning  of  a  sentence  is 
complete  at  one  or  more  points  before  the  end  is  reached, 
it  is  called  a  loose  sentence.  The  following  sentences  will 
serve  as  examples  :  — 

i.  The  child  soon  becomes  a  boy,  and  he  is  sent  out  into  the  rough 
world,  where  all  the  nonsense  about  giants  and  fairies  is  soon  knocked 
out  of  him. 

2.  The  English  stage-coachman  has  commonly  a  broad,  full  face, 
curiously  mottled  with  red,  as  if  the  blood  had  been  forced  by  hard  feed- 
ing into  every  vein  of  the  skin. 

3.  He  was  a  great  favorite  among  all  the  good  wives  of  the  village, 
who  took  his  part  in  all  family  squabbles  and  never  failed  to  lay  all  the 
blame  on  Dame  Van  Winkle. 

Each  of  these  sentences  may  be  ended  at  any  one  of 
several  points  before  the  period  is  reached. 

To  make  a  sentence  periodic,  one  must,  before  starting 
to  write,  think  out  the  entire  sentence  from  beginning  to 
end.  The  writer  must  decide  beforehand  what  the  main 
statement  is  to  be,  and  by  what  modifiers  it  is  to  be  quali- 
fied. In  short,  he  must  conceive  the  sentence  as  a  whole. 
Before  he  writes  it  down  he  must  be  able  to  see  the  begin- 
ning and  the  end  and  all  the  intermediate  parts.  For  this 
reason  the  writing  of  periodic  sentences  has  frequently 
been  recommended  as  an  exercise  likely  to  aid  the  student 
in  giving  unity  to  his  sentences.  He  cannot  write  a  peri- 
odic sentence  without  stopping  to  consider  all  its  parts  ; 
and  if  he  stops  to  consider  every  part,  he  is  not  likely  to 
violate  the  principle  of  Unity.  The  loose  sentence,  on  the 
other  hand,  need  not  be  thought  out  from  beginning  to 
end  before  it  is  written.     It  is  made  up  of  several  clauses, 


UNITY   OF   THE   SENTENCE  211 

which  are  usually  added  one  after  the  other,  just  as  they 
occur  to  the  writer.  From  its  very  nature  the  loose  struc- 
ture is  liable  to  be  abused.  Unless  one  is  constantly  on 
his  guard  he  is  likely  to  add  some  clause  that  will  destroy 
the  unity  of  the  sentence.  Even  though  the  loose  sentence 
is,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  more  common  than  the  periodic, 
the  young  writer  will  find  it  best  to  get  into  the  way 
of  making  many  of  his  sentences  periodic.  He  should, 
at  any  rate,  form  the  habit  of  thinking  out  his  sen- 
tences before  he  writes  them  down.  If  he  does  this, 
many  of  them  will  at  least  approach  the  periodic  struc- 
ture. The  tendency  to  write  loose  sentences  is  so  strong 
that  there  is  but  slight  danger  of  his  making  every  sen- 
tence periodic. 

The  sentence  is,  in  a  peculiar  sense,  the  unit  of 
thought ;  and  the  student,  therefore,  in  the  composition 
of  his  sentences,  should  carefully  guard  against  vio- 
lating the  principle  of  Unity.  A  sentence  that  con- 
tains either  less  or  more  than  a  complete  thought  is 
lacking  in  unity. 

i.  One  of  the  most  frequent  violations  of  Unity  is  the 
error  of  writing  a  mere  phrase  or  clause  as  though  it  were 
a  separate  and  complete  sentence.  It  is  of  fundamental 
importance  that  the  student  be  able  to  recognize  the 
sentence  as  a  unit.  He  can  hardly  hope  to  write  good 
sentences  unless  he  is  able  to  recognize  a  sentence  when 
he  sees  one,  unless  he  knows  the  difference  between  a 
complete  sentence  and  a  mere  fraction  or  fragment  of  a 
sentence.  He  should  never  allow  himself  to  fall  into  the 
error  of  trying  to  make  a  phrase,  or  a  subordinate  clause, 
or  a  coordinate  clause,  stand  alone  as  a  separate  sentence. 

(a)  The  following  examples  illustrate  the  fault  of  mis- 
taking a  mere  phrase  for  a  sentence :  — 


212  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

i.  When  the  engine  tilted,  the  boiler  exploded.  Thus  adding  to  the 
dreadful  scene. 

2.  The  barn  seems  to  have  been  completely  stripped  of  everything. 
With  the  exception  of  a  reaper  on  the  second  floor. 

3.  After  a  warm  rain  in  the  spring,  the  snow  melted  and  the  streams 
became  very  high.  Especially  the  West  Branch  of  the  Susquehanna 
and  its  tributaries. 

4.  We  at  last  decided,  after  considerable  discussion,  to  stay  at  this 
wayside  inn  until  the  next  morning.  The  night  being  very  dark,  and 
the  road  across  the  mountain  being  both  difficult  and  dangerous. 

In  each  of  these  examples  the  second  member  is  not 
a  sentence  at  all,  but  a  mere  phrase  belonging  gramma- 
tically to  the  preceding  sentence. 

{b)  Akin  to  the  fault  that  has  just  been  noticed  is  the 
mistake  of  separating  a  subordinate  clause  as  if  it  were 
a  distinct  sentence.  This  error  is  illustrated  by  the  fol- 
lowing examples:  — 

1.  A  certain  writer  has  prophesied  that  fifty  years  from  now  the 
whole  country  will  be  supplied  with  electricity  by  a  few  gigantic  power- 
plants.  And  that  these  stations  will  be  established  along  large  rivers 
where  abundant  water-power  can  readily  be  obtained. 

2.  Again,  our  athletics  have  attained  a  high  standard  of  excellence. 
Since  in  our  last  game  with  Yale  only  eleven  points  were  scored  against 
our  team. 

3.  Very  few  people  can  see  anything  wrong  in  reading  a  novel  or  in 
making  a  call  on  Sunday.  Although  they  strenuously  oppose  the  open- 
ing of  museums  and  theatres  on  the  Sabbath  day. 

4.  Rhetoric  as  a  science  sets  forth  the  theoretical  principles  of 
expression.  While  Rhetoric  as  an  art  shows  us  how  to  make  a  prac- 
tical application  of  these  principles. 

The  student  will  readily  see  that  in  each  of  the  fore- 
going examples  the  second  member,  although  written  as  a 
separate  sentence,  is  in  reality  only  a  subordinate  clause, 
unnaturally  and  ungrammatically  detached  from  the  rest 
of  the  sentence. 


UNITY   OF  THE   SENTENCE  21 3 

(c)  A  coordinate  clause  is  also  sometimes  improperly 
written  as  a  distinct  sentence.  The  following  examples 
illustrate  this  fault :  — 

1.  When  the  Indians  went  to  war  they  did  not  form  an  army  and 
go  out  to  fight  in  open  battle.  But  they  would  send  out  several  small 
parties  to  kill  any  persons  whom  they  found  at  a  distance  from  the 
settlement. 

2.  Nothing  sooner  inspires  people  with  confidence  in  a  business  man 
than  punctuality.  Nor  is  there  any  habit  which  sooner  saps  his  repu- 
tation than  that  of  being  always  behind  time. 

3.  Byron's  constitution  had  long  been  seriously  impaired.  And  his 
health  suffered  among  the  marshes  of  Missolonghi. 

4.  Even  when  the  sparrow  flew  into  the  study  we  had  difficulty  in 
catching  it.  For  it  would  flit  and  hop  nervously  about  without  remain- 
ing still  for  more  than  an  instant. 

Each  of  these  examples  should  be  written  as  a  single 
sentence ;  for  the  thought  expressed  by  each  is  a  unit.  At 
the  beginning  of  a  sentence  it  is  generally  best  not  to  use 
the  conjunctions  and,  for,  and  but.  They  are  more  properly 
used  to  indicate  the  close  connection  that  exists  between 
two  coordinate  clauses  of  the  same  sentence. 

2.  The  fault  of  putting  too  little  into  a  sentence  does 
not  always,  however,  consist  in  making  a  mere  phrase 
or  clause  stand  alone  as  a  separate  sentence.  It  often  hap- 
pens that  several  short  sentences  contain  what  really  ought 
to  go  into  one  sentence.  A  writer  should  not  make  the 
mistake  of  chopping  his  thought  up  into  sentences  so  small 
and  unimportant  as  to  offend  and  irritate  his  reader.  The 
habit  of  making  the  unit  of  expression  too  small  is  some- 
times little  less  than  an  insult  to  the  reader's  intelligence. 
Several  examples  will  be  enough  to  show  the  student  the 
error  of  breaking  up  the  thought  of  one  sentence  into  sev- 
eral small  and  insignificant  fragments  :  — 


214  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

i .  Below  the  chutes  are  the  "  sorters."  These  are  huge  steel  screens. 
They  are  about  twenty  feet  wide  and  thirty  feet  long.  They  are  nearly 
level.     In  fact,  they  slope  only  about  an  inch  to  the  foot. 

2.  On  the  same  floor  is  the  library.  It  contains  about  12,000  vol- 
umes of  choice  books.     It  also  has  many  of  the  current  periodicals. 

3.  Most  of  the  residents  of  my  native  town  received  their  first  edu- 
cation in  this  little  schoolhouse.  My  father  and  mother  obtained  their 
education  in  this  small  structure.  Some  of  the  most  influential  men  of 
Mifflin  County  went  to  school  in  this  building. 

4.  They  first  build  a  shanty  in  which  to  live  while  they  are  working. 
In  this  shanty  they  keep  their  food.  The  tools  that  they  need  in  the 
construction  of  the  raft  are  also  stored  here. 

These  examples  have  been  revised  in  order  that  the  stu- 
dent may  see  how  the  fault  which  they  illustrate  may  be 
removed  or  avoided  :  — 

1.  Below  the  chutes  are  the  "  sorters  "  — huge  steel  screens  about 
twenty  feet  wide  and  thirty  feet  long,  and  so  nearly  level  that  they  slope 
only  about  an  inch  to  the  foot. 

2.  The  library,  which  contains  more  than  12,000  volumes  and  many 
of  the  current  periodicals,  is  on  the  same  floor. 

3.  My  father  and  mother,  and  in  fact  most  of  the  residents  of  my 
native  town,  as  well  as  some  of  the  most  influential  men  of  Mifflin 
County,  received  their  early  education  in  this  little  schoolhouse. 

4.  They  first  build  a  shanty  in  which  to  live  while  they  are  working, 
and  in  which  to  keep  their  food  and  to  store  the  tools  that  they  need  in 
the  construction  of  the  raft. 

The  faults  which  have  been  specified  and  illustrated 
show  that  the  unpractised  writer  frequently  has  consider- 
able difficulty  in  dividing  his  composition  into  well  unified 
sentences.  Whenever  he  mistakes  a  mere  fraction  of  a 
sentence  for  a  grammatical  unit,  or  breaks  up  the  thought 
of  one  sentence  into  several  paltry  and  insignificant  frag- 
ments, he  is  violating  the  unity  of  the  sentence  by  making 
it  contain  less  than  one  complete  thought. 

3.    Of  still  more  frequent  occurrence  is  the  opposite  fault 


UNITY   OF   THE   SENTENCE  215 

of  attempting  to  make  a  sentence  contain  more  than  one 
complete  thought.  One  of  the  commonest  violations  of 
Unity  in  the  sentence  is  what  has  variously  been  styled 
the  "  heterogeneous  sentence  "  or  the  "bad  loose  sentence." 
Unless  the  young  writer  takes  pains  to  think  out  each 
sentence  from  beginning  to  end  before  he  writes  it  down, 
he  may  fall  into  the  habit  of  linking  together,  in  a  "  bad 
loose  sentence,"  several  distinct  and  heterogeneous  thoughts 
by  means  of  such  connectives  as  when,  while,  who,  wliicli, 
as,  so,  and,  but,  etc.  This  fault  is  exemplified  in  the  fol- 
lowing quotations  from  students'  themes  :  — 

1.  As  a  general  rule  Italians  are  employed  to  work  in  the  quarry,  for 
they  learn  the  trade  in  Italy  before  coming  to  this  country,  and  they 
come  to  this  country  because  they  receive  three  times  as  much  pay  for 
their  work,  and  they  can  board  for  the  same  rate  that  they  pay  at  home 
and  save  more  than  twice  as  much. 

2.  The  road  over  which  we  were  travelling  was  overhung  with  the 
branches  of  trees,  and  as  we  drove  along  I  happened  to  look  up,  and 
perched  upon  a  limb  not  far  ahead,  I  saw  the  glaring  eyes  of  a  wild-cat, 
and  pointed  out  the  animal  to  my  cousin,  who  immediately  took  aim 
and  fired. 

3.  We  were  living  in  the  midst  of  a  country  community  about  five 
miles  distant  from  the  railroad,  and  the  people  were  a  hard-working 
class,  but  believed  in  having  a  good  time,  and  that  very  frequently,  so  we 
were  often  invited  to  attend  some  of  their  festivities,  such  as  "  spelling- 
bees,"  dances  in  the  barns,  and  other  amusements,  all  of  which  were  new 
to  us,  but  you  may  be  sure  we  thoroughly  enjoyed  them  all. 

4.  The  next  morning  about  six  o^lock  we  set  off,  and  as  the  wind 
was  very  low,  we  paddled  up  the  river  about  a  mile,  when  a  good  stiff 
breeze  overtook  us  and  carried  us  along  for  about  an  hour,  when  it 
suddenly  died  out,  thus  making  us  paddle  for  another  half-hour,  when 
another  breeze  came  along,  which  took  us  to  the  lock,  and  after  passing 
through  the  lock,  we  stopped  to  take  a  rest  and  to  eat  a  lunch,  after 
which  we  were  ready  to  continue  our  journey,  which  took  us  as  far  as 
the  mouth  of  the  Youghiogheny  River,  where  we  landed  and  took  a 
good  swim,  after  which  we  ate  the  rest  of  our  lunch,  but  from  here  on 


216  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

the  wind  was  hard  against  us  and  we  had  to  paddle  the  rest  of  the  dis- 
tance, which  was  about  twelve  miles,  but  we  finally  arrived  there  about 
five  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and,  I  assure  you,  we  slept  soundly  that 
night,  for  none  of  us  had  been  used  to  such  violent  exercise. 

The  violation  of  Unity  in  these  sentences  is  glaringly- 
apparent.  There  can  be  no  organic  unity  in  the  bad 
loose  sentence;  for  it  contains  several  heterogeneous 
thoughts.  To  a  sentence  of  this  sort  there  is  really  no 
logical  end.  Any  number  of  distinct  thoughts  may  be 
thus  loosely  strung  together.  The  writer  himself  does 
not  know  and  apparently  does  not  care  what  the  end  will 
be.  Thus,  for  careless  and  inexperienced  writers,  a  pe- 
culiar danger  lurks  in  the  loose  structure.  A  number  of 
thoughts  are  written  down  and  loosely  linked  together  just 
as  they  occur  to  the  writer.  A  period  and  a  capital  letter 
may  be'inserted  almost  anywhere.  No  foresight  is  required 
in  the  composition  of  such  sentences.  To  avoid  this  vio- 
lation of  Unity,  the  writer  should  try  to  foresee  the  logical 
end  of  each  sentence.  He  must  remember  that  the  point 
of  division  between  two  sentences  is  to  be  determined,  not 
by  mere  whim  or  chance,  but  by  a  natural  division  of  the 
thought.  Above  all,  he  should  give  himself  practice  in  the 
writing  of  periodic  sentences,  or  of  sentences  that  approach 
the  periodic  structure. 

4.  Another  violation  of  Unity,  not  unusual  in  the  com- 
positions and  examination  papers  of  students,  is  the  so- 
called  "  comma  blunder."  This  fault  consists  in  writing  two 
complete  sentences  as  one,  with  only  a  comma  between 
them.     The  following  examples  illustrate  this  error :  — 

1.  Another  violation  of  Unity  is  the  "comma  blunder,"  this  fault 
consists  in  writing  two  sentences  as  one. 

2.  The  speed  of  the  automobile  seemed  to  be  greater  than  it  really 
was,  this  was  due  no  doubt  to  the  absence  of  all  noise. 


UNITY  OF  THE   SENTENCE  21? 

3.  In  the  spring  the  ice  always  piles  up  on  these  rocks  and  causes  a 
flood,  this  in  turn  does  a  great  deal  of  damage  by  filling  the  cellars 
and  by  putting  out  the  factory  fires. 

4.  The  principal  industry  of  the  town  is  cigar-manufacturing,  it  con- 
tains six  factories,  the  largest  one  employs  about  fifty  men. 

This  fault  cannot  be  too  severely  condemned.  The 
presence  of  the  "comma  blunder"  may  be  taken  as  a 
sure  sign  that  the  writer  does  not  really  know  what  a 
sentence  is. 

5.  Not  only  should  each  sentence  contain  a  single  com- 
plete thought,  but  this  thought  should  be  so  expressed  that 
the  reader  can  readily  see  its  unity.  Unity  of  thought 
sometimes  exists  without  unity  of  expression ;  that  is  to 
say,  the  thought  contained  in  a  sentence  may  really  be  a 
unit,  although  the  form  of  the  sentence  or  the  mode  of 
expression  may  be  such  as  to  obscure  its  unity.  Unity 
of  expression  is  often  destroyed  by  improper  coordination. 
Coordinate  clauses  sliould  not  be  used  unless  the  state- 
ments that  they  contain  are  of  equal  rank  and  weight. 
When  a  subordinate  idea  is  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  coordi- 
nate clause,  the  lack  of  unity  in  the  form  of  the  sentence 
is  likely  to  obscure  or  conceal  the  real  unity  of  thought. 
When  the  coordinate  clauses  of  a  sentence  are  connected 
by  such  conjunctions  as  so,  then,  hence,  therefore,  conse- 
qnently,  accordingly,  also,  besides,  moreover,  however,  and 
nevertheless,  and  when  only  a  comma  stands  between  these 
clauses,  the  lack  of  unity  in  the  form  of  the  sentence  is 
especially  apparent.  These  conjunctions  do  not  ordinarily 
indicate  the  close  connection  that  exists  between  coordinate 
clauses  of  the  same  sentence,  but  are  generally  used  to 
join  together  the  larger  divisions  of  thought.  The  follow- 
ing sentences  possess  unity  of  thought,  but  are,  in  a  greater 
or  less  degree,  lacking  in  unity  of  expression  :  — 


218  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

i .  The  milk  is  run  into  this  pan,  and  on  its  way  it  passes  through 
several  strainers,  and  these  take  out  all  dirt  and  foreign  matter. 

2.  Our  schools  and  colleges  have  of  late  years  come  to  recognize 
the  importance  of  careful  training  in  public  speaking,  and  this  is  only 
another  sign  of  the  strong  practical  tendency  of  modern  education. 

3.  Some  of  the  trees  were  affected  with  this  blight,  and  these  were 
immediately  cut  down  and  burned. 

4.  I  was  unable  to  master  this  subject  alone,  so  I  decided  to  employ 
a  tutor. 

5.  I  turned  out  the  electric  light  and  made  the  room  perfectly  dark, 
then  I  opened  the  shutter  of  the  camera. 

In  each  of  the  foregoing  sentences  there  should  be  but 
one  main  statement,  to  which  all  the  other  parts  should  be 
properly  subordinated.  The  thought  of  each  can  be  ex- 
pressed in  a  single  unified  sentence.  The  second  and  third 
examples  illustrate  a  common  mannerism,  which  is  often 
very  persistent.  The  thought  of  the  sentence  is  divided 
into  two  clauses  of  about  equal  length,  and  these  are  joined 
together  by  a?id  or  but  or  some  other  coordinate  conjunc- 
tion. The  sentence  which  precedes  this  is  intended  as  an 
additional  example.  Many  students  write  "  seesaw  sen- 
tences" with  fatal  ease  and  frequency.  This  type  of  sen- 
tence, even  when  it  may  be  made  to  possess  unity,  should 
be  used  with  extreme  caution.  A  false  balance  of  this  sort 
is  an  abomination.  The  student  who  finds  that  he  has 
acquired  the  habit  of  writing  "  seesaw  sentences  "  can  rid 
himself  of  the  fault  by  first  deciding  just  what  the  main 
thought  of  each  sentence  is  to  be,  and  by  keeping  all  the 
other  parts  subordinate.  The  use  of  so  as  a  connective 
in  the  fourth  example  and  of  then  in  the  fifth  produces  an 
effect  not  unlike  that  of  the  "  comma  blunder,"  which  has 
already  been  discussed.  Yet  neither  the  fourth  nor  the 
fifth  example  contains  two  distinct  sentences.  Careful 
study  of  these   five   faulty   sentences   will   convince   the 


UNITY   OF   THE    SENTENCE  219 

student  that  unity  of  expression  depends  mainly  on  the 
accurate  use  of  connectives.  These  examples  have  been 
revised  in  order  that  he  may  see  how  this  violation  of 
Unity  in  the  sentence  can  be  avoided  or  removed:  — 

1.  As  the  milk  runs  into  this  pan,  it  passes  through  several  strainers, 
which  take  out  all  dirt  and  foreign  matter. 

2.  That  our  schools  and  colleges  have  of  late  years  come  to  recog- 
nize the  importance  of  careful  training  in  public  speaking  is  only  another 
sign  of  the  strong  practical  tendency  of  modern  education. 

3.  The  trees  that  were  affected  with  this  blight  were  immediately  cut 
down  and  burned. 

4.  As  I  was  unable  to  master  this  subject  alone,  I  decided  to  employ 
a  tutor. 

5.  After  turning  out  the  electric  light  and  making  the  room  perfectly 
dark,  I  opened  the  shutter  of  the  camera. 

To  sum  up,  then,  the  sentence  should,  according  to  the 
principle  of  Unity,  contain  only  one  complete  thought. 
When  the  sentence  possesses  perfect  unity,  it  becomes,  for 
both  reader  and  writer,  the  natural  unit  of  expression.  It 
measures  for  the  reader  the  amount  of  thought  which  he 
is  able  to  comprehend  at  a  single  glance.  The  principle 
of  Unity  teaches  the  writer  how  much  he  may  put  into  a 
single  sentence.  The  sentence  is,  in  fact,  not  unlike  an 
organism.  Each  part  has  its  function  to  perform  ;  yet  all 
the  parts  are  organically  related,  and  all  are  necessary  to 
the  organic  unity  of  the  whole.  By  analyzing  sentences 
and  by  noticing  how  they  grow,  the  student  can  arrive  at 
a  better  understanding  of  the  organic  unity  of  the  sentence 
and  the  organic  relation  of  its  parts.  The  writer  can  best 
apply  the  principle  of  Unity  by  making  each  sentence  con- 
sist either  of  a  single  independent  statement  with  all  its 
modifiers,  or  of  several  coordinate  statements  so  closely 
related  that  they  possess  organic  unity.     Because,  from  its 


220  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

very  nature,  the  periodic  sentence  must  be  conceived  as  a 
unit  and  thought  out  from  beginning  to  end  before  it  is 
written  down,  the  practice  of  writing  periodic  sentences 
is  recommended  as  an  exercise  likely  to  help  the  student 
in  attaining  unity.  The  Unity  of  the  sentence  is  violated 
(i)  whenever  a  mere  phrase,  or  a  subordinate  clause,  or  a 
coordinate  clause,  is  set  apart  as  though  it  were  a  separate 
sentence ;  (2)  whenever  a  thought  that  should  be  expressed 
in  a  single  sentence  is  chopped  up  into  several  small  and 
insignificant  sentences;  (3)  whenever  several  heterogene- 
ous thoughts  are  crowded  into  a  "  bad  loose  sentence " ; 
(4)  whenever  two  sentences  are  written  as  one,  with  only  a 
comma  between  them;  and  (5)  whenever  the  form  of  the 
sentence  or  the  mode  of  expression  is  such  as  to  obscure 
the  unity  of  thought. 

EXERCISES 

I.  Write  a  theme  on  one  of  the  subjects  found  in  List  II,  Appendix 
E,  or  on  some  subject  suggested  by  this  list. 

II.  On  one  of  the  subjects  given  in  Exercises  I -VI  (pages  175-8), 
write  a  paragraph  theme  consisting  entirely  of  periodic  sentences. 

III.  Examine  the  passage  entitled  "Rural  Life  in  England,"  on 
page  161,  for  the  purpose  of  determining  whether  the  principle  of  Unity 
has  been  rigidly  applied  to  the  structure  of  the  sentences. 

IV.  Each  of  the  following  sentences  violates  the  principle  of  Unity. 
In  each  case  point  out  the  fault  and  show  how  it  may  be  removed :  — 

1.  I  spent  the  time  in  fishing,  in  doing  chores,  and  in  horseback 
riding,  which  I  liked  best  of  all,  for  I  had  been  in  the  country  before 
and  could  take  care  of  myself  in  the  saddle,  and  though  the  first  ride 
made  me  feel  sore  and  tired,  I  was  all  right  afterward,  but  at  last  the 
time  was  up  and  I  returned  home,  feeling  much  better  for  the  exercise 
I  had  taken. 

2.  The  storekeeper  at  this  place  is  obliged  to  compete  with  the  enor- 
mous department  stores  and  wholesale  houses  in  the  city,  and  accord- 


UNITY   OF   THE   SENTENCE  221 

ingly  makes  but  a  scant  living.  While  the  business  man  can,  after  the 
day's  work  is  done,  step  on  a  car  and  in  fifteen  minutes  be  at  his  home 
in  Germantown. 

3.  This  place  always  abounds  with  life  and  activity.  It  is  a  place 
for  men  to  go  to  during  their  leisure  hours. 

4.  I  have  lived  in  West  Chester  for  the  past  few  years,  where  I 
graduated  from  the  high  school,  and  I  also  took  a  preparatory  course  at 
the  West  Chester  Normal  School  last  summer. 

5.  On  one  side  of  the  river  the  country  is  comparatively  level.  But 
on  the  other  side  there  are  large  hills  almost  as  high  as  mountains. 

6.  The  wind  had  been  blowing  rather  hard  for  about  a  week,  and 
this  put  into  our  heads  the  notion  of  sailing  up  the  river  to  visit  a  friend 
living  in  East  Liberty  about  thirty  miles  above  our  home,  so  after  gain- 
ing the  consent  of  our  parents,  we  bought  a  lot  of  eatables,  for  we  in- 
tended to  take  things  slow  and  easy,  and  at  last,  when  all  was  ready,  the 
night  before  our  departure,  we  carried  all  our  things  down  the  river  and 
packed  them  in  a  canoe. 

7.  McKeesport  can  be  reached  by  two  railroads,  one  of  which  is  the 
main  line  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  besides  there  are  two  electric-car 
lines  that  connect  it  with  Pittsburg. 

8.  A  trip  through  these  caves  is  very  exciting,  and  as  curiosities  of 
nature  they  are  the  most  wonderful  in  western  Pennsylvania. 

9.  There  are  two  ways  of  laying  the  rails  of  an  electric  railway. 
Either  by  putting  them  on  wooden  ties  and  spiking  them  down,  or  by 
laying  them  together  on  a  concrete  base  and  fastening  them  together 
by  very  strong  bands. 

10.  Every  year  about  three  thousand  buggies  and  carriages  are 
shipped  from  this  town,  and  in  building  these  about  three  hundred 
men  are  employed. 

11.  The  telegraph,  the  telephone,  and  the  railways  brought  the 
scattered  industries  into  closer  touch  with  each  other.  While  the 
people  willingly  invested  their  money  in  any  project  which  promised 
good  returns. 

12.  If  we  should  walk  into  the  country  from  the  west  end  of  the  town 
we  should  soon  come  into  the  lumber-producing  region,  here  vast  rafts 
of  timber  are  made  and  floated  down  the  creek  to  the  saw-mills  on  the 
river. 

13.  When  the  swallows  fly  high,  we  may  look  for  fair  weather.  But 
when  they  skim  along  close  to  the  ground,  we  may  expect  rain. 


222  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

14.  As  can  be  expected  from  this  description,  the  principal  industry 
is  farming,  and  during  the  summer  months  the  fields  are  waving  with 
ripening  crops,  or  dotted  with  the  harvested  grain. 

15.  Sometimes  there  are  two  or  three  log-drivers.  These  go  down 
the  river  once  a  year. 

16.  During  these  three  years  of  teaching  I  discovered  that  I  did  not 
enjoy  the  work,  therefore  I  decided  to  go  to  college  and  prepare  for 
some  other  occupation. 

17.  The  discussion  seems  to  have  resulted  in  a  pretty  general  agree- 
ment among  thoughtful  educators  that  the  truth  lies  at  neither  extreme. 
That  each  of  these  two  classes  of  studies  has  as  its  peculiar  province  the 
development  of  certain  powers  or  faculties  of  the  mind.  That  in  conse- 
quence neither  should  be  allowed  an  exclusive  place  in  any  course  of 
study  which  aims  at  general  culture.  And  that,  if  education  is  to  result, 
not  in  a  partial  and  one-sided  discipline,  but  in  the  symmetrical  devel- 
opment of  all  the  faculties  of  the  mind,  each  of  these  two  grand  divi- 
sions of  knowledge  is  needed  to  supplement  and  reenforce  the  other. 

18.  I  at  last  accepted  a  position  on  an  engineering  corps  that  was 
working  for  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad  and  reported  to  the  assistant 
engineer  for  duty  at  seven  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  the  1st  of  August, 
when  he  gave  me  a  pass  and  told  me  to  go  to  Jackson  on  the  eight 
o'clock  train,  and  when  I  arrived  there  I  was  to  walk  eastward  about 
half  a  mile,  where  I  would  meet  a  corps  of  engineers  who  were  staking 
out  curves. 

19.  On  my  way  home  I  thought  of  the  great  interest  which  was 
shown  by  the  people  for  this  society,  and  I  felt  as  though  I  could  go 
back  again,  and  I  did. 

20.  This  building  also  contained  fancy  articles,  and  the  people  who 
owned  the  finest  of  these  received  prizes. 

21.  My  father  was  not  educated,  and  no  one  else  took  any  interest 
in  me  except  my  mother,  who  gave  me  all  the  encouragement  that  was 
possible,  but  her  education  was  very  limited,  so  even  she  did  not  know 
what  a  thorough  education  meant  to  a  person,  so  I  simply  learned  what 
higher  education  would  do  for  one,  and  where  it  was  to  be  had,  by  hear- 
ing others  talk  about  such  training  and  the  different  schools  that  gave  a 
thorough  course. 

22.  Long  before  the  first  attack  on  San  Carlos  Minister  Bowen 
was  appointed  to  settle  the  trouble,  and  he  came  to  Washington 
with  full  power  to  deal  with  Germany  and  the  other  nations,  and  this 


UNITY   OF  THE    SENTENCE  223 

fact  makes  the  destruction  of  a  fort  and  the  shedding  of  blood  appear 
inexcusable. 

23.  Shortly  after  we  had  chased  the  deer,  we  roused  a  bear  from  his 
hiding-place,  and  following  his  track  for  about  two  hours,  we  gave  it 
up,  as  he  was  all  the  time  leading  us  farther  and  farther  into  the  forest, 
and  it  was  then  time  for  us  to  start  home. 

24.  Shipping  is  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent  by  the  two  lines 
of  steamships  that  run  between  Collingwood  and  other  lake  ports,  these 
lines  of  steamships  distribute  grain,  fish,  and  manufactured  goods. 

25.  I  had  about  an  hour's  stay  at  the  latter  place,  so  I  took  a  short 
stroll  up  Broad  Street  and  ate  my  dinner. 

26.  During  the  return  trip  we  were  all  tired  and  sleepy,  hence  very 
few  stories  were  told. 

27.  During  my  junior  year  I  had  eight  recitations  a  day.  Each 
being  about  forty-five  minutes  in  length. 

28.  The  subject  of  a  theme  should  be  restricted  because  most  sub- 
jects are  found  to  come  under  the  head  of  one  large  general  subject, 
and  to  discuss  this  general  subject  is  more  than  could  be  done  in  a 
short  theme,  and  if  a  writer  tries  to  discuss  fully  one  of  these  general 
subjects,  he  is  sure  to  tire  his  reader,  and  unless  he  knows  his  subject 
thoroughly,  he  cannot  finish  it  or  discuss  it  fully. 

29.  I  cannot  now  recall  the  causes  and  details  of  what  is  known  as 
the  celebrated  Braintree  church  case.  But  I  know  that  it  was  an  effort 
to  restore  to  the  people  as  rate-payers  certain  rights  and  privileges  of 
which  they  had  been  deprived  by  the  Established  Church. 

30.  You  cannot  cut  the  alfalfa  the  first  year,  but  it  can  be  grazed  by 
turning  in  horses  and  cattle,  but  after  the  first  year  you  can  cut  four  or 
five  crops  according  to  the  climate  and  get  from  two  to  five  tons  at  a 
cutting. 

31.  His  legs,  though  exceedingly  short,  were  sturdy  according  to  the 
weight  they  had  to  sustain.  So  that,  when  erect,  he  had  not  a  little  the 
appearance  of  a  beer  barrel  on  skids. 

32.  The  sleeping  quarters  are  provided  with  cots,  and  everything 
about  these  rooms  has  an  air  of  simplicity.  It  being  the  owner's  idea 
to  get  as  close  as  possible  to  the  manner  in  which  men  lived  when  the 
best  houses  in  the  land  were  log  cabins. 

33.  We  started  to  mow  in  one  of  the  fields,  and  before  we  had  been 
at  it  long,  the  neighbors  began  to  arrive  in  great  numbers,  till  by  noon 
over  thirty  had  assembled  and  were  working  fully  as  hard  and  as  will- 


224  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

ingly  as  if  it  were  their  own  hay  that  was  being  stowed  away  in  the  big 
barn. 

34.  Last  fall  I  happened  to  be  driving  through  a  small  town.  It 
was  located  in  the  eastern  part  of  Westmoreland  County.  I  was  a 
stranger  to  this  region.  As  I  was  driving  along  I  noticed  a  weather- 
beaten  house.     In  front  of  it  hung  a  grocer's  sign. 

35.  The  principal  industry  of  the  town  is  manufacturing,  and  a  great 
deal  of  farming  is  done  in  the  surrounding  country. 

36.  The  writer  should  aim,  in  the  very  beginning  of  a  narrative,  to 
get  the  story  started.  And  he  should  also  try  to  catch  and  hold  the 
reader's  attention. 

37.  This  town  has  a  large  sash-factory,  which  keeps  from  thirty  to 
forty  men  busy.  Also  a  flour-mill,  which  is  kept  in  operation  through- 
out the  year. 

38.  The  steel  in  this  vast  structure  cost  over  two  million  dollars, 
this  combined  with  the  cost  of  the  stone  and  the  cost  of  construction 
makes  a  total  of  nearly  four  million  dollars. 

39.  Their  way  of  life  was  far  enough  from  being  decorous.  Although 
the  account  of  their  orgies  which  he  gives  in  the  first  canto  of  "  Childe 
Harold  "  is  certainly  much  overcolored. 

40.  At  that  time  of  day  the  trout  did  not  bite  very  well,  and  we 
fished  for  about  three  miles  without  catching  any,  but  toward  evening 
the  fishing  became  more  interesting,  but  we  had  to  stop  at  last,  and  at 
about  six  o'clock  we  reached  a  point  where  the  stream  divided,  and 
there  we  ended  our  fishing  for  the  day. 

41.  After  dinner  we  waited  awhile,  then  we  set  out  to  explore  the 
rocks  in  the  neighborhood. 

42.  The  game  was  played  in  Johnstown,  and  though  there  was  a 
large  crowd  of  spectators  on  the  grand  stand  and  along  the  side-lines, 
very  few  of  them  cheered  our  high  school  team. 

43.  When  the  cigars  were  passed  around  among  the  workmen,  I 
took  one.  I  put  it  in  my  pocket  so  that  no  one  would  see  that  I  was 
going  to  smoke. 

44.  This  fellow,  feeling  very  important,  opened  and  read  his  letter, 
then  he  hurried  out  to  tell  the  news. 

45.  We  found  this  place  too  rocky  for  game,  so  we  went  back  into 
the  gap  between  the  mountains. 

46.  The  horses  on  the  transport  were  fed  three  times  a  day.  Hay, 
oats,  and  water  constituting  each  meal. 


UNITY   OF   THE   SENTENCE  225 

47.  The  Philippine  question  has  been  constantly  discussed  in  this 
country  for  several  years,  and  only  recently  have  we  been  able  to  reduce 
the  affairs  of  that  country  to  a  peaceful  and  happy  condition. 

48.  The  process  of  making  artificial  teeth  is  a  very  complicated  one, 
therefore  each  phase  of  their  construction  can  be  treated  only  very 
briefly. 

49.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  physician  to  go  whenever  he  is  called,  and 
to  give  relief  to  the  sick  or  the  injured  if  it  is  in  his  power  to  do  so,  and 
he  must  visit  the  poor  as  well  as  the  rich. 

50.  Every  book  was  studied  with  care  and  diligence.  This  enabled 
me  to  understand  their  substance  clearly. 

51.  This  piece  of  bar  steel  I  took  to  the  blacksmith,  who  hammered 
it  out  and  bent  it  to  the  required  shape,  then  he  tempered  it  until  it  was 
very  hard. 

52.  These  cars  are  all  made  in  St.  Louis,  and  they  are  the  best  that 
can  be  obtained. 

53.  There  is  a  connection,  it  is  said,  between  the  moon  and  earthly 
things.  Not  a  natural  connection,  of  course,  such  as  is  observed  in 
tides.  But  the  moon  is  supposed  to  exert  on  terrestrial  objects  a  subtle 
influence  which  is  supernatural. 

54.  The  milk  is  strained  and  mixed  with  sugar,  then  it  enters  the 
condensing  pan. 

55.  If  the  power  is  obtained  from  the  creek,  a  house  must  be 
built  there  and  wires  must  be  put  up  from  the  power-house  at 
Mifflinburg,  also  a  man  must  be  paid  to  live  there  and  watch  the 
machinery. 

56.  The  country  merchant  is  the  leading  man  in  the  village.  The 
man  about  whom  a  great  deal  of  interest  is  centred. 

57.  By  this  time  the  train  was  due,  so  I  made  my  way  as  quickly  as 
possible  to  the  station. 

58.  As  one  approaches  the  town  from  the  south,  he  follows  the  road 
along  this  stream  until  he  reaches  the  main  street,  where  the  town  is 
made  visible  to  him  through  a  grove  of  beautiful  maple  trees,  whose 
tops  interweave  and  thus  form  a  sort  of  tunnel,  of  which,  as  one  goes 
through  it  in  summer,  he  cannot  help  thinking,  "  Oh,  how  beautiful  ! " 
while  in  winter  he  is  protected  by  the  great  limbs  and  trunks,  which,  as 
the  wind  blows  against  them,  make  a  sound  that  is  mournful  to  many 
but  cheerful  to  some. 

59.  The  public  schools  of  the  town  are  the  best  graded  public 


226  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

schools  in  the  state,  there  are  three   different   buildings   completely 
fitted  with  all  the  modern  improvements. 

60.  The  entire  area  of  "  the  Knob  "  is  probably  not  more  than  ten 
acres.  But  it  is  large  enough  for  a  dwelling-house  and  all  necessary 
outbuildings. 

61 .  After  dinner  we  went  to  see  the  fakirs,  and  they  certainly  did 
swindle  the  people. 

62.  This  building  contains  a  large  music-hall.  This  room  is  capable 
of  seating  seven  hundred  people.  Twice  a  week  the  Pittsburg  Orchestra 
gives  a  concert  in  it.  This  orchestra  is  one  of  the  largest  and  best  in 
the  country. 


CHAPTER   XVI 
COHERENCE   OF   THE   SENTENCE 

In  the  sentence,  as  in  the  whole  composition  and  the 
paragraph,  the  principle  of  Coherence  has  to  do  with  the 
arrangement  of  parts  and  with  their  relations  ]to  one  an- 
other. A  sentence  is  composed  of  words,  phrases,  and 
clauses.  Of  these  elements  some  are  coordinate,  others 
are  subordinate.  The  various  words,  phrases,  and  clauses 
in  a  sentence  perform  different  grammatical  functions. 
One  serves  as  subject,  another  as  object.  One  modifies 
a  noun,  another  a  verb.  Some  words  —  nouns,  verbs,  and 
adjectives  —  are  symbols  of  things,  acts,  and  qualities; 
other  words — prepositions  and  conjunctions — are  symbols 
of  relation  and  connection.  Often  a  word  or  phrase  in 
one  sentence  refers  to  something  which  has  gone  before, 
or  which  follows  immediately  after.  The  various  parts  of 
a  sentence  are  all  grammatically  related  to  one  another. 
In  fact,  no  word  or  phrase  or  clause  stands  by  itself  :  each 
part  is  related  to  other  parts ;  yet  each  part  has  its  own 
function  to  perform ;  and  all  the  parts  taken  together  are 
necessary  to  the  unity  and  the  coherence  of  that  carefully 
articulated  whole  which  we  call  a  sentence. 

The  principle  of  Coherence,  then,  as  it  is  applied  to  the 
sentence,  is  mainly  a  question  of  relation  and  arrange- 
ment. It  must  necessarily  concern  itself  with  the  gram- 
matical construction  of  the  sentence  and  with  the 
arrangement  of  its  parts.     The  English  language  is  com- 

227 


228  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

paratively  an  uninflected  language.  In  the  absence  of 
inflectional  forms  the  grammatical  function  and  the  mean- 
ing of  each  part  must  often  be  made  clear  by  its  position. 
The  problem  of  arrangement  in  the  English  sentence  is 
therefore  a  matter  of  especial  importance. 

Stated  briefly,  the  requirement  which  the  principle  of 
Coherence  makes  of  the  writer  is  this  :  the  various  ele- 
ments that  make  up  the  sentence  ought  to  be  so  phrased 
and  so  arranged  that  the  precise  meaning  and  function  of 
each  part,  the  interrelation  of  the  different  parts,  and  the 
exact  meaning  of  the  whole  will  be  readily  and  unmistak- 
ably apparent.  The  parts  should  cohere,  or  stick  together, 
in  such  a  way  as  to  make  an  intelligible  whole.  Thus 
coherence  in  the  sentence  aims  at  clearness,  the  greatest 
of  the  three  cardinal  virtues  of  all  good  writing.  To  secure 
coherence,  the  writer  will  do  well  to  bear  in  mind  a  few 
simple  precepts. 

i.  Give  every  personal,  demonstrative,  and  relative  pro- 
noun  an  explicit  and  unmistakable  antecedent.  A  pronoun 
stands  for  a  noun.  The  noun  for  which  it  stands  is  called 
its  antecedent.  The  antecedent  of  a  pronoun  is  usually 
expressed.  This  expression  of  the  antecedent  is  neces- 
sary in  order  to  make  the  meaning  of  the  pronoun  definite 
and  specific.  When  the  antecedent  is  omitted,  as  in  the 
sentence,  "  Those  who  are  strong  ought  to  help  bear  the 
burdens  of  their  weaker  brethren,"  the  pronoun  those 
needs  no  antecedent  because  the  meaning  is  made  definite 
by  the  relative  clause.  Indefinite  pronouns,  especially 
such  words  as  one,  anybody,  something,  etc.,  do  not  require 
a  definite  antecedent.  Personal,  demonstrative,  and  rela- 
tive pronouns,  however,  require  an  explicit  antecedent. 
The  relation  between  the  pronoun  and  its  antecedent 
should  be  unmistakable.     When  a  pronoun  is  without  an 


COHERENCE  OF  THE  SENTENCE       229 

antecedent,  or  when  any  one  of  several  substantives 
may  serve  as  antecedent,  the  sentence  is  sure  to  be  inco- 
herent. The  student  should  note  how  carelessness  in  the 
use  of  pronouns  has  produced  incoherence  in  each  of  the 
following  sentences :  — 

1.  After  having  had  a  serious  accident  with  an  uncleaned  rifle,  I 
have  always  been  on  my  guard  against  them. 

2.  The  last  duty  of  the  day  was  to  take  the  fruit  and  other  produce 
from  the  stand  in  front  of  the  store,  and  carry  it  to  the  cellar. 

3.  Although  none  of  the  work  requires  muscular  strength,  yet  under 
the  strain  of  school  work  they  often  become  weak  and  flabby  and  waste 
away. 

4.  For  two  years  I  worked  diligently  and  lived  economically,  which 
enabled  me  to  save  money  enough  to  pay  my  first  year's  expenses  at 
college. 

5.  The  society  of  Minneapolis  has  all  the  effeteness  of  the  East  with- 
out their  reserve. 

6.  These  stalagmites,  on  being  struck  with  a  piece  of  metal,  give 
forth  musical  sounds  not  unlike  the  tones  of  a  large  pipe-organ,  and  as 
such  they  have  been  named. 

7.  When  he  asked  the  general  to  surrender,  he  replied  that  he  could 
enter  the  fort  as  soon  as  he  captured  it. 

8.  In  a  single  week  I  ploughed  this  steep  and  rocky  hillside  field,  but 
I  found  it  very  difficult. 

9.  He  replied  to  Mr.  Anson  that  he  felt  sure  he  would  not  have  him 
in  his  church  because  he  would  have  to  profess  what  he  did  not  believe, 
or  he  would  himself  be  ignoring  the  requirements  of  his  church  in  re- 
ceiving him  as  a  member.  He  felt  sure  that  he  would  not  do  the  one 
himself  or  have  hi?n  do  the  other. 

An  examination  of  these  sentences  will  show  that  not 
one  of  the  italicized  pronouns  has  an  explicit  and  un- 
mistakable antecedent.  In  the  first  sentence  the  plural 
pronoun  them  refers  to  a  singular  substantive  —  either 
uncleaned  rifle  or  serious  accident.  In  the  second  example 
the  singular  pronoun  it  seemingly  refers  to  the  compound 


230  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

subject  fruit  and  other  produce,  but  may  refer  also  to  the 
singular  noun  stand.  In  the  third  sentence  they  has  no 
antecedent,  unless  it  be  muscles,  apparently  implied  in  the 
adjective  muscular.  The  relative  pronoun  which  in  the 
fourth  example  vaguely  refers  to  the  whole  preceding 
clause.  Their  in  the  fifth  is  entirely  without  an  antece- 
dent. In  the  sixth  sentence,  it  is  doubtful  whether  such 
refers  simply  to  pipe-organ,  or  to  pipe-organ  as  qualified 
by  the  adjective  large.  The  pronoun  he  in  the  seventh 
example  ambiguously  refers  to  two  different  persons.  In 
the  eighth  sentence  it  has  no  antecedent,  but  seems  to 
refer  vaguely  to  something  in  the  first  clause.  In  the 
last  example  the  indirect  discourse  has  made  the  obscurity 
of  the  pronouns  complete.  In  every  one  of  these  ex- 
amples the  relation  between  the  pronoun  and  its  antece- 
dent is  either  obscure  or  ambiguous.  Yet  the  writer  in 
each  instance  no  doubt  thought  that  his  meaning  was 
clearly  expressed  in  a  grammatical  sentence.  The  faults 
illustrated  in  these  examples  should  convince  the  student 
that  he  cannot  be  too  careful  in  the  use  of  pronouns  and 
similar  words  of  reference. 

2.  Make  every  participial  phrase  refer  definitely  and 
unmistakably  to  some  substantive  in  the  sentence.  A  par- 
ticipial phrase  generally  modifies  some  noun  or  pronoun 
which  is  used  in  the  nominative  or  the  objective  case.  The 
connection  between  a  participle  and  the  substantive  to 
which  it  refers  should  be  as  clear  as  the  connection  be- 
tween a  pronoun  and  its  antecedent.  Sometimes  parti- 
ciples are  left  without  any  governing  word.  Frequently 
they  are  made  to  refer  grammatically  to  words  that  they 
do  not  actually  modify.  Incoherence  in  the  use  of  par- 
ticipial phrases  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  relation 
between  the   participle,  and   the  substantive   to  which  it 


COHERENCE  OF  THE  SENTENCE       23 1 

belongs  is  either  ambiguous  or  obscure.  The  use  of 
" dangling"  and  "trailing"  participles,  already  discussed 
in  section  24,  page  193,  is  a  common  cause  of  incoherence. 
One  must  always  bear  in  mind  that  every  participial 
phrase  should  refer  grammatically  to  the  noun  or  pronoun 
to  which  it  actually  relates.  The  student,  in  examining 
the  following  sentences,  should  note  the  cause  of  inco- 
herence in  each,  and  should  correct  the  false  participial 
constructions  :  — 

1.  While  thus  sitting  and  dozing  on  the  bank,  a  fish  took  my  bait. 

2.  Being  a  manufacturing  town  and  having  so  large  a  laboring  class, 
unions  prevail  in  every  trade. 

3.  Having  descended  the  mountain,  it  was  not  long  before  the  con- 
ductor called  out,  "  Lemont ! " 

4.  By  breaking  up  the  rock,  rounded  forms  consisting  of  stony 
materials  are  found. 

5 .  While  thus  meditating,  my  attention  was  called  to  the  barn,  where 
the  threshers  were  at  work. 

6.  This  fault  must  be  guarded  against  at  all  times  and  especially 
when  using  the  flat  chisel. 

7.  Subscriptions  may  be  mailed  at  once,  using  the  attached  form. 

8.  The  general  appearance  of  the  town  is  very  pleasing,  having 
some  beautiful  dwellings  and  other  well-built  edifices. 

9.  The  cars  used  in  summer  are  open,  permitting  a  breeze  to  pass 
through. 

10.  But  the  boards  holding  the  bricks  which  are  to  be  pressed, 
instead  of  being  put  into  the  racks,  are  laid  upon  the  ground. 

1 1 .  The  public  school  is  conducted  in  connection  with  the  normal 
school,  thus  giving  the  senior  class  practice  in  teaching  as  well  as 
theory. 

In  every  one  of  the  foregoing  sentences  incoherence  has 
resulted  from  a  failure  to  make  every  participial  phrase 
refer  unmistakably  to  some  substantive  in  the  sentence. 
A  careful  study  of  these  examples  will  make  it  clear  that 
one  cannot  be  too  watchful  in  the  use  of  participial  phrases. 


232  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

In  the  first  five  examples  the  student  can  readily  detect 
the  cause  of  incoherence  by  applying  to  each  the  simple 
rule  that  a  participial  phrase  which  stands  at  the  beginning 
of  a  sentence  should  be  made  to  refer  to  the  subject.  In 
the  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  examples  can  be  seen 
another  common  cause  of  incoherence  in  the  use  of  parti- 
cipial phrases.  The  writers  of  these  sentences  have  in 
each  instance  used  the  participial  phrase  in  the  active  voice 
and  have  then,  in  the  main  clause,  put  the  predicate  verb 
in  the  passive  voice.  In  the  eighth  example  the  sense 
makes  it  necessary  for  the  reader  to  refer  having  to  town, 
although  the  participle  in  this  sentence  belongs  grammati- 
cally to  the  subject  appearance.  The  ninth  and  eleventh 
sentences  contain  examples  of  the  "  trailing  "  participle.  In 
this  faulty  construction  the  participial  phrase  in  each  in- 
stance refers  rather  to  the  preceding  clause  than  to  any 
noun  or  pronoun  in  the  sentence.  In  the  tenth  example 
the  participle  being  put  may  refer  either  to  boards  or 
bricks.  In  the  correction  of  these  sentences  it  will  often 
be  found  best  entirely  to  dispense  with  the  participial 
phrase.  For  instance,  in  the  first,  fifth,  and  sixth  sen- 
tences, one  can  remove  the  incoherence  and  absurdity  by 
supplying  in  each  case  the  words  necessary  to  a  complete 
subordinate  clause.  The  incoherence  of  these  three  sen- 
tences is  in  fact  caused  by  the  omission  of  necessary 
words.  These  three  examples  suggest  a  word  of  warning 
against  another  frequent  cause  of  incoherence. 

3.  Do  not  omit  any  word  that  is  essential  to  the  clear 
expression  of  your  thought.  Incoherence  often  arises  from 
undue  ellipsis.  Sometimes  a  writer,  in  his  effort  to  be 
concise,  omits  words  that  are  absolutely  necessary  to  the 
sense.  The  omitted  word  may  be  almost  any  part  of 
speech,  —  an  article,  a  noun,  a  pronoun,  a  verb,  a  preposi- 


COHERENCE   OF  THE   SENTENCE  233 

tion,  or  a  conjunction.  The  student  should  point  out  the 
cause  of  obscurity  in  each  of  the  following  sentences,  and 
remove  it  by  supplying,  in  each  instance,  the  necessary 
word  or  words  :  — 

1.  I  soon  found  myself  as  unpopular  with  the  yard-master  as  the 
fireman. 

2.  In  this  second  experiment  I  noticed  some  phenomena  with 
which  I  was  unacquainted  and  had  never  before  investigated. 

3.  I  soon  became  acquainted  not  only  with  the  storekeeper  and 
postmaster  of  the  little  village,  but  also  with  the  minister  and  school- 
master. 

4.  When  four  years  of  age,  we  moved  to  the  city  of  Albany,  and 
there  I  began  to  go  to  school. 

5.  That  night,  when  the  callers  had  all  gone  home,  I  was  less  dis- 
posed to  ask  my  father  than  my  mother. 

6.  He  was  advanced  from  a  humble  clerk  to  the  junior  partner  in 
the  great  firm. 

7.  In  all  other  respects  the  results  were  the  same  as  our  previous 
experiment. 

8.  This  state  of  affairs  has  resulted  in  a  scarcity  of  skilled  opera- 
tives capable  of  doing  the  more  delicate  and  difficult  work,  and  other 
industrial  changes  likely  to  embarrass  the  manufacturers  of  textile 
fabrics. 

9.  In  my  class  there  were  two  young  men  who  made  no  use  of  their 
opportunities,  but  wasted  these  years  in  idleness  and  dissipation,  under 
the  impression  that  they  were  having  a  good  time,  and  apparently  had 
no  serious  thought  of  preparing  for  any  useful  work. 

10.  It  is  now  generally  believed  that  the  destruction  of  our  forests 
is  resulting  in  a  reduction  of  the  rainfall,  and  by  the  removal  of  roots 
and  leaves  water  is  not  absorbed  and  held  in  quantities,  and,  as  a 
consequence,  that  which  falls  as  rain  runs  off  quickly,  soon  leaves 
the  hillsides  dry  and  bare,  and  results  in  sudden  high  water  or 
floods. 

The  ambiguity  or  the  obscurity  of  the  foregoing  examples 
will  be  evident  without  much  comment.  In  order  to  give 
the  first  sentence  a  definite  meaning  some  word  or  words 


234   '  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

must  be  supplied  after  the  second  as.  In  the  second  ex- 
ample both  coherence  and  correctness  require  the  repeti- 
tion of  the  relative  pronoun  which  after  and.  The  writer 
of  the  third  sentence  really  speaks  of  becoming  acquainted 
with  only  two  persons,  although  he  may  mean  to  mention 
four.  After  when,  in  the  fourth  example,  a  subject  and 
a  verb  should  be  supplied.  The  incoherence  of  the  fifth 
sentence  is  similar  to  that  of  the  first.  The  writer  of  the 
sixth  sentence  seems  to  say  that  some  one  was  advanced 
from  one  person  to  another  rather  than  from  one  position 
to  another.  In  the  seventh  example  several  necessary 
words  are  omitted  after  as.  In  the  eighth  sentence  the 
preposition  in  should  be  repeated  after  the  second  and. 
The  ninth  sentence  does  not  become  entirely  clear  until  the 
relative  pronoun  who  is  repeated  before  the  word  appar- 
ently. In  the  tenth  sentence  the  incoherence  results  from 
the  failure  to  repeat  the  conjunction  that  after  the  first 
subordinate  clause. 

4.  Place  every  modifier  as  near  as  possible  to  the  word 
that  it  modifies.  This  rule  applies  with  especial  force  to 
the  position  of  only,  of  relative  clauses,  and  of  adverbial 
expressions.  "  Clearness  requires  that  the  words  and 
clauses  which  are  distinct  in  thought  shall  be  distinct  in 
expression,  and  that  those  nearly  related  in  thought  shall 
be  brought  as  near  to  each  other  in  expression  as  possible. 
By  conformity  to  this  principle,  the  mutual  relations  of 
the  constituent  parts  of  a  sentence,  on  the  one  hand,  will 
be  clearly  indicated  ;  and  the  words  which  go  to  make 
up  each  part,  on  the  other  hand,  will  be  closely  bound 
together."  l  By  examining  the  following  sentences,  the 
student  can  readily  see  how  incoherence  is  caused  by  the 
false  position  of  modifiers  :  — 

1  A.  S.  Hill's  "  Principles  of  Rhetoric,"  page  135. 


COHERENCE  OF  THE  SENTENCE       235 

1.  At  first  I  only  took  snap-shots. 

2.  I  could  only  find  this  specimen  along  the  rocky  slopes  near  the 
river. 

3.  He  was  not  nominated  for  this  office  because  he  possessed  the 
necessary  qualifications,  but  because  he  was  thought  to  be  a  good  party 
man. 

4.  There  was  a  large  consignment  of  goods  in  these  boxes,  which 
we  had  to  stow  away  on  the  shelves. 

5.  The  fireman  had  to  shovel  the  earth  and  the  stones  from  the 
track,  which  had  slid  down  the  mountain-side. 

6.  After  this  hollow  has  been  filled  out,  a  piece  of  sole-leather, 
which  is  of  the  shape  of  the  whole  bottom  of  the  shoe,  that  has  first 
been  soaked  in  water  and  thoroughly  pounded,  is  sewed  firmly  to  the 
welt. 

7.  He  had  discovered  slot-machines  and  other  devices  tabooed  by 
the  anti-gambling  laws  in  operation  at  a  church  fair. 

8.  I  remember  this  incident  distinctly  because  some  little  folks  had 
come  to  play  with  me  that  afternoon  while  I  was  sleeping. 

9.  The  teacher  looked  out  and  saw  the  superintendent  coming 
through  the  window. 

10.  I  was  soon  made  aware  that  refreshments  were  to  be  obtained 
across  the  street,  by  a  middle-aged  man  beating  a  big  brass  pan  and 
calling  the  name  of  the  various  articles  to  be  had, 

The  incoherence  of  these  sentences  shows  how  important 
it  is  that  modifiers  be  placed  as  close  as  possible  to  the 
words  that  they  modify.  The  first  two  examples  illustrate 
the  common  error  of  placing  only  in  a  false  position.  Ex- 
amples four,  five,  and  six  show  how  relative  clauses,  when 
wrongly  placed,  may  give  rise  to  incoherence.  The  last  four 
examples  illustrate  the  ambiguity  and  the  absurdity  often 
produced  by  the  misplacement  of  adverbial  expressions. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  the  writer  of  the  last  sentence,  as 
if  to  apologize  for  the  incoherence  which  he  took  no  pains 
to  remove,  has  placed  a  comma  just  before  the  ambiguous 
modifier.  The  faulty  position  of  not  in  the  third  sentence 
suggests  the  importance  of  placing  correlative  connectives 


236  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

next   to   the   words,    phrases,    or   clauses   that  they  join 
together. 

5.  Place  correlative  connectives  next  to  the  expressions 
that  they  connect.  The  most  common  correlative  connec- 
tives are  not  only,  but  also ;  either,  or;  neither,  nor ;  both, 
and ;  on  the  one  hand,  on  the  other  hand.  By  means  of 
these  correlative  conjunctions,  expressions  that  go  in  pairs 
are  so  joined  that  the  first  member  of  the  pair  is  set  off 
against  the  second  member.  If  either  of  the  two  correla- 
tives is  placed  in  a  false  position,  the  reader  is  confused 
and  misled;  for  he  does  not  know  what  expressions  the 
writer  intends  to  join  together.  The  faulty  placing  of  cor- 
relative conjunctions  is  particularly  exasperating  because 
all  connectives  —  and  especially  these  "  correspondents  " 
—  are  used  for  the  sake  of  coherence.  The  student  should 
carefully  examine  the  following  sentences,  note  the  cause 
of  incoherence  in  each,  and  try  to  remove  it :  — 

1 .  He  was  not  only  successful  as  a  teacher  of  the  natural  sciences, 
but  he  attained  eminence  also  as  a  popular  lecturer  on  scientific  subjects. 

2.  Beside  it  was  a  red  woodshed,  the  door  of  which  was  usually 
either  hanging  on  loose  hinges,  or  else  about  half  the  boards  were  torn 
off. 

3.  My  employer  both  offered  to  give  me  an  increase  in  my  salary  and 
a  small  share  in  the  business. 

4.  The  High  School  Journal  is  beneficial  not  only  to  the  students, 
but  it  also  gives  others  a  high  opinion  of  the  school. 

5.  He  neither  cared  for  an  academic  education  nor  to  become  a 
clerk  in  his  father's  office. 

6.  I  was  now  confronted  by  a  serious  difficulty :  on  the  one  hand,  I 
felt  that  I  could  not  betray  the  interests  which  the  company  had  in- 
trusted to  me ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  I  could  not  prove  false  to  my 
friend. 

In  all  these  examples  the  fault  is  the  same :  the  expres- 
sions which  the  correlative  conjunctions  seem  to  connect 


COHERENCE  OF  THE  SENTENCE       237 

are  not  really  coordinate  and  parallel.  In  order  to  illus- 
trate the  correct  use  of  these  correspondents,  the  first 
sentence  may  be  rewritten  in  several  ways:  — 

a.  Not  only  was  he  successful  as  a  teacher  of  the  natural  sciences,  but 
he  also  attained  eminence  as  a  popular  lecturer  on  scientific  subjects. 

b.  He  was  not  only  successful  as  a  teacher  of  the  natural  sciences, 
but  also  eminent  as  a  popular  lecturer  on  scientific  subjects. 

c.  He  was  eminently  successful  not  only  as  a  teacher  of  the  natural 
sciences,  but  also  as  a  popular  lecturer  on  scientific  subjects. 

6.  Be  sure  that  every  sentence  possesses  both  unity  of 
thought  and  unity  of  expression.  Lack  of  unity  in  the  sen- 
tence is  only  another  form  of  incoherence.  Two  parts  can- 
not cohere  if  they  are  unrelated  or  incongruous.  Nor  can 
the  reader  be  expected  to  see  the  true  relation  between  two 
given  parts  of  a  sentence  when  they  are  joined  together  by 
the  wrong  conjunction.  Connectives,  when  properly  used, 
are  great  aids  to  coherence ;  but  when  misused,  they  are 
almost  sure  to  produce  incoherence.  Sometimes  and  joins 
together  two  clauses  which  ought  to  stand  apart  as  sepa- 
rate sentences.  And  and  but,  commonly  used  by  careless 
writers  to  indicate  almost  any  kind  of  connection  or  rela- 
tion, are  frequent  offenders  against  coherence.  Incohe- 
rence is  also  very  often  the  result  of  improper  coordination 
or  of  improper  subordination.  One  can  hardly  expect  to 
write  coherent  sentences  without  first  learning  how  to  use 
conjunctions  with  skill  and  accuracy.  The  following  sen- 
tences show  that  more  or  less  incoherence  is  often  produced 
by  the  lack  of  unity  and  the  misuse  of  conjunctions :  — 

1 .  We  made  the  platform  so  strong  that  it  lasted  for  two  years,  when 
it  was  taken  down  because  it  creaked  when  the  wind  shook  the  trees. 

2.  The  roads  were  in  good  condition,  and  I  kept  up  a  good  pace  in 
the  cool  of  the  morning. 


238  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

3.  Although  the  college  is  beautifully  located,  the  expenses  are 
moderate. 

4.  The  pink  flowers  are  usually  gathered  in  clusters,  and  they  have 
a  fragrant  odor,  but  they  are  becoming  rare  and  can  be  found  only  in 
extensive  woodlands. 

5.  I  thought  that  the  experience  would  help  me  very  much,  so  I 
went  to  work. 

6.  The  number  of  pounds  given  out  was  always  noted,  so  an  exact 
account  could  be  kept. 

7.  We  were  nearly  halfway  across  the  river  when  the  lightning  struck 
the  bridge  somewhere  near  us. 

8.  Merion  contains  about  four  hundred  inhabitants,  and  the  dwelling- 
houses  are  all  surrounded  by  tall  and  delightful  shade  trees,  while  the 
streets  are  lined  with  Norway  maples,  and  are  also  well  paved. 

Although  there  is  no  serious  ambiguity  or  obscurity  in 
any  of  the  foregoing  sentences,  yet  they  are  all  more  or 
less  incoherent.  In  each  example  there  seems  to  be 
expressed  or  implied  some  connection  or  relation  that  does 
not  exist.  The  first  example  possesses  neither  unity  of 
thought  nor  unity  of  expression.  When  it  is  divided  into 
two  sentences,  the  improvement  is  apparent :  — 

We  made  the  platform  so  strong  that  it  lasted  for  two  years.  It  was 
finally  taken  down  because  it  creaked  when  the  wind  shook  the  trees. 

The  second  sentence  lacks  unity  of  expression.  The 
same  thought  can  be  much  more  coherently  expressed  in 
the  following  form  :  — 

As  the  morning  was  cool  and  the  roads  were  in  good  condition,  I 
kept  up  a  rapid  pace. 

These  two  examples  are  sufficient  to  show  that  the 
principle  of  Unity  and  the  accurate  use  of  conjunctions 
are  valuable  aids  to  coherence.  A  few  brief  comments 
may  help  the  student  to  see  the  specific  fault  in  each  of 
the  remaining  sentences.     Between  the  two  clauses  of  the 


COHERENCE   OF  THE   SENTENCE  239 

third  sentence,  it  is  hard  to  see  the  relation  which  is 
usually  expressed  by  the  concessive  conjunction  although. 
Indeed,  it  is  difficult  to  see  any  relation  whatever.  No  one 
but  the  writer  of  the  fourth  sentence  could  explain  why  he 
has  used  and  between  the  first  two  clauses  and  but  between 
the  second  clause  and  the  third,  or  why  he  has  put  these 
four  clauses  into  one  sentence.  The  first  clause  of  the 
fifth  sentence  should  be  made  subordinate.  In  the  sixth 
sentence,  it  is  not  clear  whether  so  is  intended  to  be  a 
loose  coordinate  connective,  as  in  the  fifth,  or  to  take  the 
place  of  the  subordinate  conjunction  of  result,  so  that.  In 
the  seventh  sentence,  the  main  statement  is  found  in  the 
dependent  temporal  clause  introduced  by  when.  "  When 
we  were  nearly  halfway  across  the  river,  the  lightning," 
etc.,  is  apparently  what  the  writer  meant  to  say.  It  is 
hard  to  see  why  the  various  clauses  that  make  up  the 
eighth  example  are  joined  together.  Certainly  the  third 
clause  of  this  example  is  no  more  subordinate  than  the 
second  clause ;  why,  then,  it  may  be  asked,  did  the  writer 
use  the  subordinate  conjunction  while? 

7.  When  several  parts  of  a  sentence  are  similar  in 
thought,  make  them  similar  also  in  co7istruction.  The 
similarity  in  construction  will  help  the  reader  to  see  the 
similarity  in  the  relation  of  ideas.  Any  unwarranted 
change  in  the  construction  is  sure  to  confuse  him.  Infini- 
tives and  participles,  for  example,  are  not  good  yoke-mates. 
A  substantive  clause  should  not  be  joined  to  a  noun  when 
the  two  express  parallel  ideas.  There  should  be  no  need- 
less change  of  subject  or  of  person.  One  should  not 
unnecessarily  shift  from  one  voice  or  tense  or  mood  to 
another.  Within  the  sentence  the  construction  of  parallel 
ideas  should  be  kept  uniform.  Careful  study  of  the  fol- 
lowing examples  will  show  the  incoherence  and  the  inef- 


240  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

fectiveness   that   arise   from  any  unnecessary  change  in 
construction :  — 

i .  I  determined  on  preparing  for  college  as  soon  as  possible  and  to 
try  the  examinations  in  the  following  September. 

2.  The  principle  of  Unity  requires  the  careful  selection  of  material, 
and  that  one  should  exclude  all  irrelevant  ideas  from  his  theme. 

3.  Wood  is  generally  used  for  firing  the  evaporator,  but  some  use 
coal. 

4.  I  should  advise  one  never  to  enter  the  freshman  class  with  con- 
ditions, for  when  you  have  entered,  you  will  have  all  the  work  that  you 
are  able  to  do. 

5.  Although  we  had  gathered  a  large  quantity  of  grass  to  lie  on,  a 
very  uncomfortable  night  was  passed. 

6.  The  colt  should  be  bridled  as  soon  as  possible.  Leave  the 
bridle  on  for  a  few  hours. 

7.  I  realized  how  little  I  knew  and  the  many  advantages  that  an 
educated  man  has  over  one  that  is  not  educated. 

8.  Having  nothing  to  do,  and  as  school  did  not  begin  for  more 
than  a  month,  I  accepted  the  position. 

9.  The  cakes  of  ice  which  I  handled  were  twenty-eight  inches  long 
and  twenty-two  inches  wide,  and  ranging  from  ten  to  fourteen  inches  in 
thickness. 

10.  Military  training  teaches  a  man  obedience,  to  think  quickly,  and 
how  to  command  others. 

In  the  first  of  these  examples  the  conjunction  and  joins 
together  a  participial  phrase  and  an  infinitive.  In  the 
second  sentence  a  substantive  clause  is  joined  to  a  noun. 
In  the  third  and  fifth  sentences  an  unnecessary  change  is 
made  both  in  subject  and  voice.  The  writer  of  the  fourth 
example  makes  an  unnecessary  shift  from  the  third  person 
to  the  second.  The  sixth  example  contains  an  abrupt 
change  in  mood.  The  writer  of  the  seventh  sentence  has 
joined  a  noun  to  a  substantive  clause,  and  has  tried  to  make 
an  adjective  balance  a  relative  clause.  In  the  eighth  ex- 
ample the  conjunction  and  connects  a  participial  phrase 


COHERENCE  OF  THE  SENTENCE       24 1 

and  a  dependent  clause,  as  if  they  were  coordinate  and 
parallel  expressions.  In  the  ninth  sentence  the  adjectives 
long  and  wide  are  followed  by  the  prepositional  phrase  in 
thickness,  and  the  finite  verb  were  by  the  participle  ranging. 
In  the  last  example  the  three  direct  objects  of  teaches  are 
all  in  different  constructions.  The  student  will  find  it  pos- 
sible to  correct  most  of  these  examples  in  several  different 
ways. 

8.  Finally,  so  phrase  the  thought  of  every  sentence  that  it 
can  have  only  one  meaning.  Ambiguity  sometimes  arises 
from  a  careless  use  of  words.  To  make  this  fact  evident, 
a  few  examples  will  be  more  useful  than  much  extended 
comment :  — 

1.  Hog  cholera  is  working  havoc  among  the  farmers  of  the  vicinity. 

2.  My  father  promised  that  he  would  let  me  go  to  Europe  for  a 
graduation  present. 

3.  In  England  a  family  has  been  discovered  every  member  of  which 
has  six  fingers  and  six  toes  on  each  hand  and  foot. 

4.  The  annual  sale  of  the  members  of  the  Christian  Endeavor 
Society  will  take  place  at  the  church  next  Saturday  evening. 

5.  The  farmer  is  worried  if  his  grain  is  spoiled  by  not  enough  or  by 
too  much  rain. 

6.  This  was  the  first  time  that  the  greater  part  of  us  had  been  on  a 
ship. 

7.  Several  years  ago  the  minister  in  our  town,  who  happened  to  have 
a  fondness  for  poultry,  was  greatly  troubled  with  chicken  lice. 

The  student  will  have  no  difficulty  in  seeing  that  the  am- 
biguity of  these  sentences  is  caused  either  by  a  careless 
choice  or  by  an  unfortunate  combination  of  words.  To 
remove  the  incoherence,  he  will  find  it  necessary,  in  each 
case,  to  make  some  change  in  the  wording  or  in  the  form 
of  the  sentence. 


242  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 


EXERCISES 

I.  Write  a  theme  on  one  of  the  subjects  found  in  List  III,  Appendix 
E,  or  on  some  subject  suggested  by  this  list. 

II.  Point  out  and  correct  any  incoherence  in  each  of  the  following 
sentences :  — 

i.  In  storms  the  wires  are  often  blown  down  in  the  streets,  thus 
placing  horses  and  pedestrians  in  great  danger  of  their  lives. 

2.  You  could  see  them  jump  from  the  spring-board  and  their  feats 
of  diving  from  it. 

3.  The  prayer  meetings  of  the  Amish  are  like  those  of  the  Quakers  : 
no  one  speaks  until  the  spirit  moves  them. 

4.  Then  the  tree,  falling  in  an  opposite  direction  from  which  I  in- 
tended, lodged  in  the  top  of  another  tree. 

5.  The  most  important  industries  of  my  native  town  are  fishing,  the 
building  of  ships,  the  manufacture  of  ropes,  and  a  meat  factory. 

6.  Thus,  on  this  trip,  we  had  the  pleasure  of  visiting  this  farm,  with 
all  its  modern  improvements,  its  record  in  grain-raising,  the  stock  be- 
longing to  it,  and  its  prominence,  which  made  it  the  most  valuable  farm 
in  that  part  of  the  state. 

7.  Although  the  soldier  performs  many  duties  and  undergoes  many 
hardships,  the  United  States  government  cares  for  them  both  during 
their  active  service  and  after  they  have  been  retired. 

8.  After  leaving  Baltimore,  our  journey  continued  without  interrup- 
tion as  far  as  Norfolk. 

9.  In  order  to  grow  cress  successfully,  there  must  not  be  any  water 
in  the  dam  that  has  come  a  long  distance. 

10.  The  way  to  get  the  most  fun  out  of  catching  minnows  is  for  sev- 
eral boys  to  fish  together,  and  the  fellow  who  catches  the  least  number 
of  minnows  must  do  all  the  disagreeable  work. 

1 1 .  The  place  is  noted  not  only  for  its  natural  curiosities,  but  it  also 
has  an  interesting  history. 

12.  These  men  may  have  answered  the  very  same  questions  which 
are  now  asked  several  months  ago. 

13.  After  swimming  across  the  Schuylkill  River,  my  highest  ambi- 
tion was  to  swim  across  the  Delaware. 

14.  If  the  instructions  of  the  employer  are  followed  exactly  by  the 
civil  engineer,  he  will  not  be  at  fault  if  the  work  is  not  done  correctly. 


COHERENCE   OF  THE   SENTENCE  243 

15.  By  this  teacher  we  were  given  a  start  in  algebra,  and  something 
in  the  way  of  literature  was  attempted. 

16.  Therefore  it  is  clear  that  overhead  wires  are  a  nuisance,  and 
instead  of  being  strung  from  pole  to  pole,  they  should  be  placed  under 
ground,  where  they  do  not  spoil  the  appearance  of  the  street  and  do  not 
endanger  people's  lives. 

17.  When  all  these  processes  are  finished,  the  print  is  mounted 
while  still  wet  on  a  card. 

18.  The  marsh  marigold,  though  not  a  flower  most  people  would 
care  to  gather,  is  nevertheless  attractive  as  it  rises  above  the  waters 
of  the  swamp  from  a  distance. 

19.  The  knives  fall  at  regular  intervals,  cutting  the  shale  into  bricks, 
and  are  capable  of  cutting  forty-eight  hundred  an  hour. 

20.  Wishing  to  enter  college  without  conditions,  it  was  necessary 
that  I  should  prepare  for  an  examination  in  the  English  Classics. 

21.  There  are  two  answers  to  the  question,  Why  did  I  come  to 
the  State  University  ?  They  are,  first,  my  desire  for  a  better  edu- 
cation ;  and  second,  that  I  wanted  to  study  agriculture  or  scientific 
farming. 

22.  The  absence  of  officers  of  the  law  and  the  need  of  such  are 
features  of  which  few  cities  can  boast. 

23.  The  bridge  is  so  constructed  that  in  case  of  the  ice  and  logs 
becoming  jammed,  seven  piers  may  be  removed,  leaving  every  eighth 
pier  standing,  and  these  will  then  form  arches. 

24.  You  are  expected  to  make  a  mark  of  sixty  in  your  entrance 
examinations,  so  do  not  think  that  by  mere  reading  and  not  studying 
the  condition  will  let  you  pass. 

25.  My  first  experience  as  a  lumberman  was  when  I  was  a  mere  boy 
along  the  banks  of  the  West  Branch  of  the  Susquehanna  River. 

26.  I  can  see  the  stacks  of  the  steamers  as  they  go  up  and  down  the 
river  from  my  study  window. 

27.  I  was  interrupted  by  a  body  of  negroes  who  had  lately  arrived 
in  town  to  take  the  place  of  the  strikers,  marching  up  and  down  the 
street  with  guns  and  clubs  and  very  desperate  looks. 

28.  The  photographer  at  last  succeeded  in  taking  a  picture  of  a  very 
doubtful  character. 

29.  My  idea  of  the  cave  was  that  it  was  in  the  side  of  the  mountain, 
and  I  was  much  surprised  when  told  that  I  was  there,  that  I  was  unable 
to  see  any  sign  of  a  cave. 


244  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

30.  You  will  find  them  an  industrious  people,  owning  their  own 
homes  and  with  a  little  in  the  bank  for  a  "  rainy  day." 

31.  We  went  nutting  but  were  not  able  to  find  any. 

32.  Trout-fishing  is  good  sport,  although  it  requires  some  skill. 

33.  My  room-mate,  who  had  been  critically  ill  for  some  time,  and 
whose  life  had  even  been  despaired  of,  was  now  getting  better  very 
slowly,  to  the  great  delight  of  his  friends. 

34.  The  robin's  plump  little  breast  was  toward  me,  with  little  tufts 
of  red  appearing  here  and  there,  and  eyes  which  shone  like  dewdrops 
in  the  sunlight,  he  was  a  picture  to  behold. 

35.  As  I  am  familiar  with  the  locality  in  which  the  hospital  is  to  be 
built,  and  knowing  something  of  the  reasons  why  it  is  being  built,  I 
should  have  no  trouble  in  writing  about  it. 

36.  The  other  sections  form  a  part  of  the  framework  which  sepa- 
rates the  mows  and  threshing-floors. 

37.  Any  one  or  all  of  the  generators  can  be  applied  to  any  particu- 
lar circuit  or  circuits,  and  thereby  securing  the  utmost  flexibility. 

38.  Having  three  hours  to  wait  in  this  town,  sight-seeing  was  natu- 
rally my  main  occupation. 

39.  Some  merchants  were  at  the  fair  and  tried  to  show  how  much 
more  it  would  be  to  the  advantage  of  the  farmer  to  buy  his  goods  than 
that  of  other  people. 

40.  I  was  disappointed,  for  I  either  expected  to  find  him  at  his  home 
or  at  his  office. 

41.  The  work  of  the  last  year  was  not  mere  task-work  on  account 
of  the  whole  class  taking  an  interest  in  it. 

42.  I  had  to  make  up  all  the  work  that  I  missed  by  taking  examina- 
tions for  which  I  had  to  study  hard  to  get  through. 

43.  The  gymnasium  adjoins  the  main  building,  so  the  students  who 
enter  it  will  not  be  compelled  to  go  out  of  doors. 

44.  We  had  a  short  tin  tube  about  six  inches  long  and  one  in 
diameter. 

45.  Examinations  should  be  abolished  for  two  important  reasons: 
first,  because  it  is  not  a  fair  test  of  what  a  man  knows  about  the  subject ; 
and,  second,  because  they  cause  a  great  deal  of  cramming  in  many  cases, 
which  goes  to  extremes,  and  breaks  up  the  nervous  system,  the  most 
important  part  of  which  is  the  brain. 

46.  By  taking  this  precaution,  very  little  coal  will  be  needed  in  order 
to  keep  the  fire  going  a  long  time. 


COHERENCE  OF  THE   SENTENCE  245 

47.  The  owner  of  this  park  and  of  the  animals  that  it  contains  will 
permit  no  one  to  enter  it  unless  he  is  with  them. 

48.  I  told  him  that  the  cement  was  not  good  and  should  not  be 
used,  and  to  use  some  that  had  just  been  shipped  to  him. 

49.  I  was  obliged  to  drive  into  some  road  other  than  the  one  where 
the  carriages  had  to  go  in  order  to  get  back  to  the  gate. 

50.  Trout  are  only  found  in  small  streams. 

51.  In  the  shallower  boxes  I  packed  the  different  sizes  of  spools,  and 
these  I  sold  to  my  friends,  who  were  also  in  the  same  business  at  whole- 
sale rates. 

52.  It  is  situated  in  the  central  part  of  the  historic  Wyoming  Valley, 
and  lying  on  a  broad,  level  stretch  of  land. 

53.  My  teacher  not  only  promised  to  write  Mr.  Hardy  a  personal 
letter  in  my  behalf,  but  also  a  recommendation  setting  forth  my  special 
qualifications  for  the  place. 

54.  When  the  chisel  is  forced  into  a  piece  to  be  turned  at  a  wrong 
angle,  this  is  called  "  catching  a  crab." 

55.  Once  out  of  the  city,  a  fine  macadamized  road  stretched  before 
us,  known  as  the  "  Eastport  Speedway." 

56.  I  could  only  keep  a  collar  round  my  fat  beagle's  neck  by  con- 
necting it  to  a  second  strap  around  his  body. 

57.  These  Swedes  are  employed  mostly  around  mills  and  as  servants. 

58.  Taking  careful  aim  with  his  shot-gun,  he  pulled  the  trigger,  but 
there  was  no  report.  Then  he  tried  the  other  barrel,  and  this  time  it 
went  off. 

59.  The  lumber  is  then  cut  according  to  the  pattern  chosen  by  men 
on  circular  and  band  saws. 

60.  The  raft  was  made  of  small  logs  each  about  a  foot  in  diameter, 
and  were  fastened  together  by  boards  which  are  nailed  to  the  upper  sides. 

61.  It  can  be  reached  by  the  largest  ocean  steamers  and  is  connected 
by  rail  and  navigable  waters  with  the  coal  regions  of  the  state,  thus 
making  it  the  greatest  coal  market  in  America. 

62.  Bellefonte  is  the  best  town  in  Pennsylvania  for  a  home,  as  a 
business  location,  or  in  which  to  seek  rest  and  quiet. 

63.  It  is  a  small  place  of  about  four  hundred  inhabitants  scattered 
over  a  great  deal  of  ground. 

64.  The  word  coward  is  the  most  disgraceful  term  that  can  be 
applied  to  any  one,  and  there  are  few  other  words  that  men  hesitate 
upon  so  long  before  applying  it  to  another. 


246  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

65.  Amusements  of  all  kinds  were  going  on  during  the  day,  and  the 
night  was  spent  in  eagerly  awaiting  the  election  returns. 

66.  Every  article  was  put  in  its  place  as  soon  as  it  was  received,  so 
the  salesman  would  know  where  to  find  them  when  they  were  needed. 

67.  This  blue-print  told  us  the  required  dimensions  and  how  to  make 
the  first  piece. 

68.  My  friend  showed  me  an  old  sword  and  he  immediately  began 
to  tell  me  the  story  connected  with  this  relic  in  the  following  manner. 

69.  A  German  sneezes  with  all  his  might,  and  if  there  is  a  com- 
patriot within  hearing,  he  says,  "  Gesundheit  ! " 

70.  As  I  was  unloading  grain  from  a  wagon  into  a-  car  last  summer, 
while  carrying  a  bag  into  the  car,  the  horses  took  fright  and  began  to 
run. 

71 .  In  the  town  of  Wyoming  stands  a  monument  in  commemoration 
of  the  battle  seventy  feet  high. 

72.  At  first  the  freshman  line  wandered  in  a  zigzag  manner,  being 
unable  to  see  their  opponents. 

73.  This  farmhouse  is  a  favorite  resort  for  bicyclists,  for  it  not  only 
furnishes  a  cool  resting-place,  but  also  pure  water,  which  comes  from  a 
spring  near  by. 

74.  To  one  entering  the  town  on  a  train,  the  appearance  is  that  of  a 
manufacturing  centre,  and  also  the  homes  of  the  working  class  come 
before  the  eyes  of  the  beholder. 

75.  The  town  is  noted  for  its  large  tin  works  and  for  having  a  very 
complete  street-car  system. 

76.  On  arriving  at  the  railway  station,  your  impression  of  the  town 
is  likely  to  be  poor ;  on  reaching  the  main  street,  however,  your  opinion 
is  soon  changed. 

yy.  When  I  left  the  drill-press  to  work  on  the  lathe,  I  had  had  expe- 
rience in  drilling  holes  in  almost  every  part  of  an  engine. 

78.  This  name  offers  as  an  advantage  the  permitting  of  all  the  em- 
phasis to  be  placed  upon  the  definite  article  that  it  is  a  gratification  to 
any  of  us  to  hear. 

79.  One  of  the  worst  features  of  our  deficient  railroad  system  is  that 
our  merchants  do  not  carry  a  large  stock  of  goods,  thus  limiting  the 
choice  of  the  purchaser. 

80.  Our  class  made  trips  to  the  mountains  for  the  purpose  of  studying 
the  different  formations  of  the  rocks,  and  also  to  gather  fossils,  which 
were  to  be  placed  on  exhibition  in  the  schoolroom. 


COHERENCE  OF  THE  SENTENCE       247 

81.  By  plunging  directly  into  the  subject,  a  clear  and  vivid  impres- 
sion will  stay  with  the  reader. 

82.  He  should  be  as  economical  as  possible,  and  he  should  use  the 
things  that  are  placed  in  his  charge  to  the  best  advantage. 

83.  Some  benches  have  been  placed  in  these  little  parks  along  the 
well-kept  walks,  which  furnish  pleasant  resting-places  for  tired  pedes- 
trians. 

84.  As  this  was  my  first  visit  to  New  York,  and  having  no  thought 
that  my  friends  would  not  meet  me  at  the  station,  I  scarcely  knew  what 
to  do. 

85.  The  sides  of  this  mountain  are  covered  with  loose  boulders  and 
half-rotten  logs,  but  with  scarcely  any  vegetation. 

86.  When  completed  the  capacity  of  the  power-plant  at  Niagara  will 
be  105,000  horse-power. 

87.  My  rapid  progress  was  due  partly  to  my  regular  attendance,  and 
partly  because  my  father  was  my  teacher. 

88.  If  these  boards  are  not  placed  directly  over  the  larger  timbers, 
they  will  become  curved  and  warped,  thus  making  them  unfit  for  use. 

89.  The  train  was  running  slow  enough  for  us  to  get  on,  which  you 
may  be  sure  we  did. 

90.  The  printer  takes  the  retouched  negative  and  makes  as  many 
prints  as  are  desired  on  sensitized  paper. 

91.  The  notable  circumstances  of  a  woodman's  life  are  his  way  of 
living,  the  hardships  connected  with  his  work,  and  being  deprived  of 
refining  influences. 

92.  After  leaving  the  bottle  in  the  tester  twenty  minutes,  the  machine 
is  stopped  and  the  bottle  taken  out. 

93.  The  country  school-teacher  has  to  teach  algebra  to  the  most 
advanced  pupils,  and  the  youngest  he  must  teach  to  count. 

94.  It  was  just  eight  o'clock  and  we  expected  to  be  at  the  camp  about 
eleven,  for  the  brush  was  very  thick  on  the  road  on  account  of  not  being 
used  very  much. 

95.  They  often  had  to  stop  along  the  way  for  repairs  or  to  get  up 
more  steam. 

96.  There  are  some  of  the  farms  which  are  good  naturally,  and  some 
which  have  been  made  so  by  picking  the  stones  off. 

97.  The  stove  in  this  opening  does  not  give  enough  heat  to  warm 
both  rooms,  so  if  a  person  goes  there  to  wait  for  a  train,  he  must  suffer 
from  the  cold  until  the  train  arrives. 


24S  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

98.  A  branch  of  the  Colegate  Iron  Company  established  a  foundry 
in  our  town,  which  employs  about  four  hundred  men,  and  a  large  addi- 
tion is  being  built  at  present. 

99.  His  conception  of  character  is  not  only  that  of  the  skilful  play- 
wright, but  the  man  who  delineates  character  with  an  exact  and  vivid 
literary  touch. 

100.  We  could  see  boats  of  all  sorts  in  the  river ;  the  high  buildings 
of  New  York  and  Brooklyn  could  be  plainly  seen ;  and  then  there  was 
the  construction  of  the  bridge  itself;  all  these  things  contributed  to  our 
pleasure. 


CHAPTER   XVII 
EFFECTIVENESS 

Just  as  every  paragraph  is  likely  to  comprise  some 
sentences  that  are  more  important  than  others,  so  every  sen- 
tence is  likely  to  contain  some  words  or  phrases  that  are 
more  weighty  than  the  rest.  To  give  forcible  expression 
to  a  thought,  one  must  make  the  important  parts  stand  out 
prominently  and  at  the  same  time  keep  the  unimportant 
parts,  as  it  were,  in  the  background.  In  the  spoken  sen- 
tence, for  instance,  one  habitually  and  unconsciously  secures 
emphasis  by  placing  special  stress  of  voice  upon  the  most 
significant  words.  In  written  discourse,  however,  there  is 
no  such  easy  method  of  obtaining  emphasis.  If  any  one 
of  that  group  of  related  ideas  which  we  call  a  thought  is  to 
make  a  deeper  impression  upon  the  reader's  mind  than  the 
rest  of  the  sentence,  it  must  be  so  phrased  and  so  placed 
as  to  attract  his  attention.  To  secure  force,  then,  the  writer 
must  give  careful  attention  both  to  the  mode  of  expression 
and  to  the  arrangement  of  words  and  phrases. 

The  first  of  these,  the  mode  of  expression,  is  largely  a 
matter  of  diction.  The  choice  of  words  is  so  important  a 
part  of  the  writer's  task  that  a  separate  chapter  has  been 
given  to  the  subject  (see  Chapter  XXI).  In  addition,  how- 
ever, to  the  selection  of  such  words  as  precisely  and  forci- 
bly express  one's  thought,  there  are  several  emphatic  modes 
of  expression  which  deserve  special  mention. 

In  the  first  place,  a  writer  can  often  make  a  thought 

249 


250  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

especially  emphatic  by  putting  it  in  a  short,  pithy  sentence. 
A  brief  and  pointed  expression  of  an  important  thought 
will  undoubtedly  make  a  deeper  and  more  lasting  impres- 
sion than  a  lengthy  statement.  This  fact  Shakespeare 
both  expressed  and  exemplified  when  he  said,  "  Brevity  is 
the  soul  of  wit."  The  value  of  the  brief,  pointed  sentence 
as  a  means  of  securing  special  emphasis  is  demonstrated 
by  the  fact  that  most  popular  quotations  are  short.  A 
short,  pithy  sentence  will  be  readily  grasped  and  retained 
because  the  main  thought  is  not  obscured  by  a  multiplicity 
of  details  and  qualifications.  Subject  and  predicate  are 
made  to  stand  alone ;  necessary  modifications  are  made  to 
form  the  subject-matter  of  less  emphatic  sentences.  The 
effectiveness  of  the  short  sentence  is  well  illustrated  by  the 
following  examples :  — 

Diffuseness  is  fatal  to  emphasis. 
Even  Saint  Paul  had  his  bad  moments. 
Literature  is  the  immortality  of  speech. 
Education  is  the  cheap  defence  of  nations. 
Civility  costs  nothing  and  buys  everything. 

Conciseness  is  in  fact  a  valuable  aid  to  effective  expres- 
sion. Wordiness,  on  the  other  hand,  destroys  emphasis. 
Human  ingenuity  could  not  devise  any  surer  way  of  en- 
feebling the  writer's  thought  and  dulling  the  reader's  atten- 
tion than  by  the  use  of  twice  as  many  words  as  are  really 
needed.  The  following  examples  show  the  value  of  con- 
ciseness as  a  means  of  securing  emphasis  :  — 

1.  a.  He  returned  back  to  the  city  which  he  claimed  as  his  birthplace. 
b.  He  returned  to  his  native  city. 

2.  a.  There  is  quite  a  good  deal  of  labor  and  expenditure  of  money 
involved  in  the  laying  out  and  the  making  of  a  good  tennis-court. 

b.  To  make  a  good  tennis-court  requires  considerable  labor  and 
money. 


EFFECTIVENESS  25 1 

3.  a.  In  the  various  country  communities  everybody  knows  every- 
body else,  and  is  generally  on  friendly  terms  with  him  or  her,  as  the 
case  may  be. 

b.  In  the  country  everybody  knows  his  neighbors,  and  is  usually 
on  friendly  terms  with  them. 

4.  a.  I  was  finally  compelled  to  abandon  the  study  of  these  subjects 
on  account  of  the  fact  that  my  father  informed  me  that  I  should  be 
obliged  to  give  up  my  intention  of  going  to  college  the  following  fall. 

b.  My  father  told  me  that  I  could  not  go  to  college  the  following 
fall ;  consequently  I  was  at  last  compelled  to  give  up  these  studies. 

In  the  next  place,  a  writer  may  occasionally  obtain 
special  emphasis  by  adroitly  repeating  important  words  or 
phrases,  or  by  repeating  the  same  form  of  sentence.  The 
value  of  repetition  as  a  means  of  securing  emphasis  is 
illustrated  by  the  following  quotations :  — 

1.  He  was  hated  throughout  the  country,  hated  2A.  the  India  House, 
hated,  above  all,  by  those  wealthy  and  powerful  servants  of  the  Com- 
pany whose  rapacity  and  tyranny  he  had  withstood. 

2.  All  that  is  good,  all  that  is  true,  all  that  is  beneficent,  be  it  great 
or  small,  be  it  perfect  or  fragmentary,  natural  as  well  as  supernatural, 
moral  as  well  as  material,  comes  from  God. 

3.  He  knew  that  the  standard  of  morality  among  the  natives  of  India 
differed  widely  from  that  established  in  England.  He  knew  that  he 
had  to  deal  with  men  destitute  of  what  in  Europe  is  called  honor ;  with 
men  who  would  give  any  promise  without  hesitation,  and  break  any 
promise  without  shame ;  with  men  who  would  unscrupulously  employ 
corruption,  perjury,  forgery,  to  compass  their  ends. 

4.  He  ordered  his  army  to  march  against  the  English.  He  counter- 
manded the  order.  He  tore  Give's  letters.  He  then  sent  answers  in 
the  most  florid  language  of  compliment.  He  ordered  Watts  out  of  his 
presence,  and  then  threatened  to  impale  him.  He  again  sent  for  Watts 
and  begged  pardon  for  the  insult. 

In  the  third  place,  the  use  of  figurative  language  is  often 
a  valuable  aid  to  effectiveness.  No  definition  is  needed  to 
explain  the  meaning  of  the  term  "  figures  of  speech,"  or 


252  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

"  figurative  language."  The  ordinary  speech  of  plain  peo- 
ple, as  well  as  the  more  formal  language  of  writers,  abounds 
in  words  and  phrases  and  statements  that  cannot  be  taken 
literally.  With  most  people  figurative  language  is  as  easy 
and  natural  as  literal  language.  The  average  man  uses 
it  unconsciously  and  understands  it  without  difficulty.  He 
needs  neither  interpreter  nor  definitions  of  simile,  meta- 
phor, and  personification  when  he  reads  sentences  like  the 
following :  — 

The  sea  was  blanketed  with  a  thick  fog. 

Books  are  lighthouses  erected  in  the  great  sea  of  time. 

If  you  would  be  pungent,  be  brief;  for  it  is  with  words  as  with  sun- 
beams —  the  more  they  are  condensed,  the  deeper  they  burn. 

The  equator  burns  its  course  through  the  Indian  Ocean,  belts  a  path 
across  Sumatra,  strikes  again  into  the  sea,  —  and  just  here  Asia  ends 
and  finishes  with  a  period.     This  is  the  island  and  town  of  Singapore. 

What  a  cunning  silversmith  is  the  Frost !  The  rarest  workmanship 
of  Delhi  and  Genoa  copies  him  but  clumsily,  as  if  the  fingers  of  all  other 
artists  were  thumbs.  Fern-work  and  lace- work  and  filigree  in  endless 
variety,  and  under  it  all  the  water  tinkles  like  a  distant  guitar,  or  drums 
like  a  tambourine,  or  gurgles  like  the  tokay  of  an  anchorite's  dream. 

The  figurative  use  of  language,  as  exemplified  in  these 
quotations,  serves  to  make  the  thought  more  clear,  more 
vivid,  more  impressive,  more  striking.  Oftentimes  it  hap- 
pens that  the  thought  and  the  feeling  which  one  would 
express  can  be  communicated  in  no  other  way  so  clearly 
and  effectively  as  by  the  aid  of  figurative  language.  To 
be  effective,  figures  of  speech  should  not  be  labored  or  far- 
fetched, but  should  come  naturally,  almost  unconsciously. 
Their  proper  function  in  prose  composition  is  not  to  adorn, 
but  to  illuminate  and  enforce  the  writer's  thought.  Figu- 
rative language  is  effective  because  it  gives  to  one's  thought 
clearness,  vividness,  animation,  impressiveness,  emphasis. 
The  special  force  of  the  simile,  the  metaphor,  and  per- 


EFFECTIVENESS  253 

sonification,  three  of  the  commonest  figures  of  speech, 
depends  upon  resemblance  and  comparison.  The  exam- 
ples of  figurative  language  quoted  in  the  foregoing  para- 
graph are  all  based  upon  some  real  or  fancied  similarity. 
In  the  simile  the  resemblance  is  expressed :  the  qualities 
or  the  actions  of  one  class  of  objects  are  explicitly  com- 
pared with  the  qualities  or  the  actions  of  another  class. 
In  the  metaphor,  on  the  contrary,  the  resemblance  is  not 
expressed,  but  implied:  similar  things  or  similar  qualities 
are  identified  with  each  other.  In  personification  the  attri- 
butes and  actions  .of  human  beings  are  assigned  to  animals, 
to  inanimate  objects,  or  to  abstract  qualities.  Personifi- 
cation is  also  a  mode  of  comparison,  and  rests  upon  some 
implied  resemblance.  The  following  quotations  will  not 
only  serve  as  examples  of  these  figures  of  speech,  but  will 
also  illustrate  the  peculiar  force  of  figurative  language  :  — 

Simile.  —  We  all  do  fade  as  a  leaf. 

Happiness  is  reflective,  like  the  light  of  heaven. 

A  man  without  a  purpose  is  like  a  ship  without  a  rudder. 

Metaphor.  —  The  Lord  God  is  a  sun  and  a  shield. 

Composition  is  the  flowering  out  of  a  man's  mind. 

The  Christian  faith  is  a  grand  cathedral  with  divinely  pictured 
windows.  When  you  are  standing  without,  you  see  no  glory,  nor  can 
possibly  imagine  any ;  when  you  are  standing  within,  every  ray  of  light 
reveals  to  you  a  harmony  of  unspeakable  splendor. 

Personification.  —  The  stars  in  their  courses  fought  against  Sisera. 

Wit  loses  its  respect  with  the  good  when  seen  in  the  company  of 
malice. 

Nature  comes  home  to  one  most  when  he  is  at  home ;  the  stranger 
and  the  traveller  find  her  a  stranger  and  a  traveller  also. 

Contrast,  as  well  as  comparison,  is  frequently  used  as 
a  means  of  securing  emphasis.  Sharply  contrasted  ideas 
are  set  off  against  each  other  in  the  same  sentence.  This 
figure  is  commonly  called  antithesis.     Its  rhetorical  value 


254  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

depends  upon  the  fact  that  when  ideas  are  placed  in  con- 
trast or  opposition  to  each  other,  they  are  likely  to  produce 
a  strong  and  vivid  impression.  Sometimes  a  writer  finds 
it  desirable  further  to  increase  the  force  of  the  contrast  by 
putting  the  opposing  ideas  in  the  same  grammatical  con- 
struction. This  form  of  antithesis  is  called  the  "  balanced 
sentence."  The  similarity  of  structure  is  made  to  heighten 
the  dissimilarity  of  ideas.  The  following  quotations,  the 
last  three  of  which  are  examples  of  the  balanced  sentence, 
all  illustrate  the  special  force  of  antithesis  :  — 

Affectation  hides  three  times  as  many  virtues  as  charity  does  sins. 

There  is  in  every  true  woman's  heart  a  spark  of  heavenly  fire,  which 
lies  dormant  in  the  broad  daylight  of  prosperity,  but  which  kindles  up 
and  beams  and  blazes  in  the  dark  hour  of  adversity. 

To  err  is  human  ;  to  forgive,  divine. 

A  false  balance  is  an  abomination  to  the  Lord ;  but  a  just  weight  is 
His  delight. 

The  mountains  give  their  lost  children  berries  and  water ;  the  sea 
mocks  their  thirst  and  lets  them  die. 

To  be  effective,  a  writer  should  not  only  phrase  his 
thought  in  forcible  language,  but  he  should  also  arrange 
the  most  important  parts  of  a  sentence  in  such  a  way  as 
to  give  them  the  greatest  prominence.  The  most  em- 
phatic points  in  the  sentence  are  the  beginning  and  the 
end.  The  very  fact  that  the  sentence  is  in  a  special  sense 
the  unit  of  discourse  —  the  measure  of  one  complete 
thought  —  makes  the  beginning  and  the  end  particularly 
emphatic ;  for  the  period  at  the  close  of  a  sentence  marks 
the  point  where  one  thought  ends  and  another  begins. 
This  point  of  separation  between  two  sentences  serves 
as  a  momentary  resting-place  for  the  eye.  The  word  or 
phrase  which  immediately  precedes  it  and  the  word  or 
phrase  which  immediately   follows  it  —  that   is,   the  end 


EFFECTIVENESS  255 

of  one  sentence  and  the  beginning  of  another  —  stand  out 
with  special  prominence.  Other  marks  of  punctuation, 
notably  the  colon  and  the  semicolon,  afford  similar  resting- 
places  for  the  eye,  and  also  give  some  degree  of  promi- 
nence to  words  or  phrases  placed  immediately  before  or 
after  them.  The  period,  however,  since  it  marks  a  "  com- 
plete stop,"  gives  greater  prominence  than  any  other  mark 
of  punctuation.  According  to  the  principle  of  Emphasis, 
then,  words  and  phrases  of  weight  should,  whenever  it  is 
possible,  be  placed  at  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  a  sen- 
tence. Such  an  arrangement  is  sure  to  make  upon  the 
reader  the  strongest  and  most  lasting  impression.  The 
most  unemphatic  arrangement  is  that  which  masses 
the  most  important  words  in  the  middle  of  the  sentence ; 
for  the  most  significant  parts  are  thus  likely  to  be  ob- 
scured by  that  which  precedes  and  that  which  follows. 
It  is  the  business  of  the  writer,  in  applying  the  principle 
of  Emphasis  to  the  arrangement  of  the  words,  phases,  and 
clauses  of  a  sentence,  first  to  decide  which  parts  deserve 
the  greatest  prominence,  and  then  to  put  these  important 
parts  at  the  beginning  and  the  end.  One  can  thus  secure 
emphasis  either  by  transposing  important  words,  phrases, 
and  clauses,  or  by  changing  the  grammatical  construction. 
Some  degree  of  emphasis  is  given  to  a  word  or  phrase 
that  is  merely  transposed  from  its  natural  position  in  the 
sentence,  even  though  it  may  not  be  placed  at  the  begin- 
ning or  the  end.  In  the  normal  arrangement  of  the  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  English  sentence  the  subject  stands 
before  the  predicate,  an  adjective  precedes  the  noun  that 
it  modifies,  an  adjective  phrase  or  clause  follows  the  noun 
that  it  qualifies,  and  the  adverbial  elements  are  placed 
after  the  verb  to  which  they  belong.  Any  legitimate  de- 
parture from  this  normal  order  will  attract  the  reader's 


256  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

attention  and  thereby  make  the  transposed  element  em- 
phatic. Thus  mere  inversion  produces  emphasis.  Further- 
more, when  the  transposed  member  stands  either  at  the 
beginning  or  the  end  of  the  sentence,  it  becomes  doubly 
emphatic.  In  the  following  sentences  emphasis  has  been 
obtained  by  some  change  or  changes  from  the  normal 
order :  — 

Steadily  the  wondrous  transfiguration  went  on. 

Great  are  the  triumphs  of  modern  mechanical  ingenuity. 

Slavery  they  can  have  anywhere.  .  .  .  Freedom  they  can  have  from 
none  but  you. 

Where  population  is  sparse,  discussion  is  difficult. 

Among  the  members  of  this  celebrated  body  was  one  to  whom  it 
owed  the  greater  part  of  its  celebrity. 

When  the  Yosemite  was  discovered,  it  was  supposed  to  be  the  only 
valley  of  its  kind. 

Being  a  little  too  fond  of  playing  "  the  lady  bountiful,"  Dora  Vernon 
often  bestowed  her  gifts  indiscriminately  and  ostentatiously. 

Sometimes,  in  order  to  make  a  sentence  emphatic,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  change  the  grammatical  construction. 
The  order  of  words  in  the  English  sentence,  as  has  already 
been  pointed  out,1  is  a  matter  of  special  importance  be- 
cause the  position  of  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  is  one 
means  of  indicating  grammatical  relations.  Whenever,  in 
the  arrangement  of  the  various  parts  of  a  sentence,  there 
appears  to  be  a  conflict  between  the  principle  of  Cohe- 
rence and  that  of  Emphasis,  Coherence  should  always 
have  the  right  of  way.  Clearness  and  grammatical  cor- 
rectness are  more  important  than  emphasis.  Usually, 
however,  with  a  little  ingenuity,  it  is  possible  to  make  a 
sentence  both  coherent  and  emphatic.  If  one  form  of 
expression,  or  mode  of  phrasing  a  thought,  will  not  allow 

1  See  page  228. 


EFFECTIVENESS  257 

the  important  elements  to  stand  at  the  beginning  and  the 
end,  the  grammatical  construction  can  generally  be  so 
changed  as  to  put  the  significant  words  in  prominent 
places.  Several  examples  will  suffice  to  show  how  the 
emphasis  of  a  sentence  may  thus  be  improved  by  a  change 
in  the  grammatical  construction  :  — 

1.  a.   There  are  two  kinds  of  drawings  which  have  to  be  made. 
b.  Two  kinds  of  drawings  have  to  be  made. 

2.  a.  It  is  no  less  a  piece  of  human  perfection  to  detect  the  flavor 
of  an  olive  than  to  find  beauty  in  the  colors  of  a  sunset. 

b.  To  detect  the  flavor  of  an  olive  is  no  less  a  piece  of  human 
perfection  than  to  find  beauty  in  the  colors  of  a  sunset. 

3.  a.  It  was  a  dark,  cold  night  in  midwinter  that  this  lonely  old 
mansion  was  entered  by  three  burglars,  who  must  somehow  have  ob- 
tained secret  information  concerning  the  plan  of  the  house  and  the 
habits  of  its  inmates. 

b.  One  dark,  cold  night  in  midwinter  three  burglars,  who  must 
somehow  have  obtained  secret  information  concerning  the  plan  of  the 
house  and  the  habits  of  its  inmates,  entered  this  lonely  old  mansion. 

4.  a.  At  the  surface  I  was  supplied  with  a  lamp  and  some  matches 
by  my  guide. 

b.  At  the  surface  my  guide  supplied  me  with  a  lamp  and  some 
matches. 

Perhaps  the  most  common  type  of  unemphatic  sentence 
is  that  which  is  produced  by  a  feeble  ending.  Many  sen- 
tences end  weakly  because  some  unimportant  word  or 
some  subordinate  element,  such  as  a  prepositional  or  a 
participial  phrase,  a  relative  or  an  adverbial  clause,  or 
perhaps  a  series  of  such  phrases  or  clauses,  has  been  per- 
mitted to  staAl  at  the  end.  Such  sentences  are  ineffective 
because  some  insignificant  and  subordinate  part  has  been 
allowed  to  usurp  the  place  of  greatest  prominence.  If  a 
writer  finds  it  impossible*  to  make  both  the  beginning  and 
the  end  of  a  sentence  emphatic,  he  should  at  least  take 
pains  to  avoid  a  feeble  ending.     He  can  readily  do  this 


258  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

by  placing  the  subordinate  parts  in  the  body  or  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sentence.  In  other  words,  he  can  gener- 
ally avoid  an  unemphatic  ending  by  so  rearranging  the 
parts  as  to  make  the  sentence  periodic,  or  almost  periodic. 
A  few  examples  will  show  how  the  emphasis  of  a  sentence 
may  often  be  improved  by  some  rearrangement  which  fol- 
lows or  approaches  the  periodic  structure  :  — 

i.   a.   The  tramp  jumped  at  least  ten  feet  when  I  drew  the  pistol. 
b.  When  I  drew  the  pistol  the  tramp  jumped  at  least  ten  feet. 

2.  a.  Land  that  has  never  been  farmed  does  not  need  any  fertilizer, 
as  a  rule. 

b.  Land  that  has  never  been  farmed  does  not,  as  a  rule,  need  any 
fertilizer. 

3.  a.  A  solitary  house  stands  upon  a  high  hill  near  the  town  which 
I  live  in. 

b.  On  a  high  hill  near  the  town  in  which  I  live  stands  a  solitary 
house. 

4.  a.  In  Shylock's  opinion,  Antonio  committed  the  greatest  wrong 
imaginable  by  practising  those  Christian  virtues  which  are  opposed  to 
usury  and  mammon  worship. 

b.  In  Shylock's  opinion,  Antonio,  by  practising  those  Christian 
virtues  which  are  opposed  to  usury  and  mammon  worship,  committed 
the  greatest  wrong  imaginable. 

Climax  is  another  valuable  aid  to  effectiveness.  By 
climax  is  meant  the  arrangement  of  a  series  of  words, 
phrases,  or  clauses  in  the  order  of  their  strength  or  impor- 
tance. The  whole  series  is  arranged  in  a  sort  of  ascend- 
ing scale,  with  the  weakest  or  least  important  member  first, 
and  the  strongest  member  last.  The  advantage  of  this 
order  is  that  the  addition  of  each  successive  member  of 
the  series  increases  the  strength  or  force  jof  the  sentence. 
The  value  of  climax  as  a  means*  of  securing  an  effective 
arrangement  of  the  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  of  a  sen- 
tence is  illustrated  by  the  following  example :  — 


EFFECTIVENESS  259 

While  a  multitude  of  changes  has  remoulded  the  people  of  Europe, 
while  languages  and  laws  and  creeds  have  passed  over  it  like  shadows 
over  the  landscape,  the  children  of  the  Celt  and  the  Goth,  who  fled 
to  the  mountains  a  thousand  years  ago,  are  found  there  now,  and  show 
us,  in  face  and  figure,  in  garb  and  in  language,  what  their  fathers  were ; 
show  us  how  great  is  the  contrast  between  them  and  the  modern  tribes 
dwelling  below  and  around  them ;  and  show  us,  moreover,  how  adverse 
is  the  spirit  of  the  mountains  to  mutability,  and  that  there  the  fiery 
heart  of  freedom  is  found  forever. 

When  this  order  is  reversed,  and  the  words  or  phrases 
or  clauses  of  a  series  are  arranged  in  anticlimax,  the  sen- 
tence becomes  feebler  and  feebler  as  it  approaches  the 
end,  because  each  successive  member  is  weaker  than  the 
preceding  one.  The  enfeebling  effect  of  anticlimax  is 
exemplified  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

He  was  dumfounded,  amazed,  surprised,  by  this  unexpected  turn  of 
affairs. 

Beside  the  most  horrible  chasms,  amid  intense  darkness,  along  un- 
seen paths,  through  falling  snows,  the  mountain  climber  fearlessly  and 
resolutely  pursued  his  way,  ever  upward  and  onward. 

The  Puritans,  who  made  the  name  of  England  terrible  to  every 
nation  on  the  face  of  the  earth,  who  trampled  down  king,  church,  and 
aristocracy,  who  formed,  out  of  the  most  unpromising  materials,  the 
finest  army  Europe  had  ever  seen,  who  directed  their  measures  through 
a  long  series  of  eventful  years,  who  roused  the  people  to  resistance, 
were  no  vulgar  fanatics. 

The  student,  by  rearranging,  in  the  order  of  their  strength 
or  importance,  the  series  of  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  in 
the  foregoing  sentences,  can  see  for  himself  how  valuable 
climax  is  as  a  means  of  securing  effectiveness. 

The  writer,  then,  in  order  to  make  his  sentences  forcible, 
must  give  careful  attention  both  to  the  mode  of  expression 
and  to  the  arrangement  of  words,  phrases,  and  clauses. 
The  selection  of  precise  and  vivid  words,  the  use  of  short, 


260  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

pointed  sentences  whenever  the  thought  is  to  be  made 
particularly  emphatic,  the  skilful  repetition  of  important 
words,  and  the  occasional  resort  to  figurative  language  are 
all  valuable  aids  to  effective  expression.  Wordiness  should 
be  avoided  because  it  enfeebles  the  thought  and  dulls  the 
reader's  attention.  The  places  of  greatest  prominence  in 
a  sentence  are  the  beginning  and  the  end;  and  accord- 
ingly, to  secure  emphasis,  the  most  important  parts  of  a 
sentence  should  be  placed  at  these  two  points.  This  em- 
phatic arrangement  one  can  obtain  either  by  transposing 
words,  phrases,  and  clauses  from  their  natural  order,  or 
by  changing  the  grammatical  construction.  The  student 
should  especially  guard  against  ending  a  sentence  feebly 
with  some  unimportant  word  or  phrase,  or  with  a  succes- 
sion of  participial  phrases  or  subordinate  clauses.  A  feeble 
ending  of  this  sort  he  can  generally  avoid  by  such  a  rear- 
rangement as  will  make  the  sentence  approach  the  periodic 
form.  Further,  in  the  arrangement  of  a  series  of  words, 
phrases,  or  clauses,  the  order  of  climax  should  be  followed. 
By  these  various  means  a  writer  should  have  no  difficulty 
in  making  his  sentences  forcible  in  expression  and  emphatic 
in  arrangement. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Write  a  theme  on  some  subject  found  in  List  IV,  Appendix  E,  or 
on  some  subject  suggested  by  this  list. 

II.    Show  how  each  of  the  following  sentences  may  be  made  more 
emphatic :  — 

i.  This  steel  is  especially  suitable  for  the  making  of  razors  and  fine 
instruments  on  account  of  its  hardness. 

2.  A  school  for  so  many  pupils  should  have  no  less  than  six  teachers 
to  do  justice  to  so  many  pupils. 

3.  A  leather  belt  is  placed  around  this  wheel  and  around  the  other 
wheel  at  the  end  of  the  spindle. 


EFFECTIVENESS  261 

4.  A  single  brass  bedstead  stood  in  the  corner  and  was  surrounded 
by  a  large  canopy. 

5.  The  paper  is  put  on  one  end  of  the  machine  in  large  rolls  weigh- 
ing five  hundred  pounds  each. 

6.  Stores  and  saloons  occupy  the  main  street,  and  these  are  owned 
by  negroes  who  have  been  thrifty  and  successful  in  the  past. 

7.  There  is  a  certain  time  in  the  year  when  one  should  begin  to  salt 
a  deer-lick.  This  time  is  during  the  summer  months,  when  the  deer 
are  running  about  from  place  to  place  in  search  of  new  grounds  where 
they  can  find  forage. 

8.  He  said  that  the  Indians  had  not  had  a  happy  day  since  the 
French  fort  was  taken. 

9.  The  merchants  of  the  town  thought  that  they  saw  ruin  before 
them  when  the  population  of  the  town  was  thus  reduced  almost  one- 
half. 

10.  Honor,  liberty,  life,  property,  are  all  at  stake. 

11.  My  father's  house  is  by  far  the  most  interesting,  as  it  contains 
many  relics  of  the  Civil  War. 

12.  The  plan  was  a  failure,  as  a  large  part  of  the  tunnel  was  under 
the  river  and  the  water  came  in. 

13.  The  trip  was  taken  on  a  beautiful  day  in  the  early  part  of  the 
month  of  August  in  1899. 

14.  There  are  twenty-five  of  these  machines  that  the  wood-pulp 
must  pass  through. 

15.  We  put  up  in  an  old  farmhouse  for  the  night,  because  it  looked 
very  much  like  rain,  and  it  was  five  miles  to  the  nearest  village. 

16.  The  language  of  the  imagination  is  the  language  of  all  the  higher 
temperaments  and  moods  of  man's  mind,  the  language  of  his  devotions, 
of  his  aroused  passions,  of  his  excited  intellect. 

17.  I  worked  as  a  salesman  in  a  shoe-store  on  Saturdays  and  during 
my  vacations  while  I  was  attending  the  high  school. 

18.  The  entire  equipment  of  the  school  is  out  of  date  and  is  in  fact 
just  like  that  which  was  used  in  the  public  schools  of  a  generation  or 
more  ago. 

19.  Thus  the  rural  free  delivery  of  mail  is  actually  becoming  self- 
supporting,  instead  of  adding  to  the  amount  of  taxation. 

20.  The  wood  loses  about  twenty-five  per  cent  of  its  bulk  and 
about  eighty  per  cent  of  its  weight  in  the  process  of  changing  to 
charcoal. 


262  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

21.  It  will  be  a  good  thing  for  you  to  come  to  college  prepared  for 
the  various  "  rushes  "  by  bringing  an  old  suit  of  clothes  along  with  you 
from  home. 

22.  In  fact,  the  work,  which  was  tiresome  at  first,  soon  began  to  seem 
less  so. 

23.  There  are  also  a  number  of  men  who  have  played  basket-ball 
before,  trying  for  the  team. 

24.  The  house  in  which  the  first  American  flag  was  made  is  the  one 
place  which  holds  the  most  fame  in  history  of  all  the  places  of  interest 
which  I  have  ever  visited. 

25.  There  was  a  great  deal  of  property  taken  and  destroyed  in  the 
vicinity  of  my  home  at  the  time  of  General  Lee's  invasion  of  Penn- 
sylvania. 

26.  It  is  examined  again  very  carefully  before  it  is  passed  into  the 
trimming-room. 

27.  The  danger  in  crossing  a  desert  is  very  great,  owing  to  the 
scarcity  of  water  and  the  possibility  of  losing  one's  way. 

28.  Very  little  now  remains  to  mark  this  spot  but  the  foundation  and 
a  few  pieces  of  wood. 

29.  The  room  had  four  large  windows,  which  let  plenty  of  light  in. 

30.  One  is  free  to  give  his  attention  to  all  the  means  of  oratorical 
effectiveness  when  he  has  once  memorized  a  declamation. 

31.  It  may  be  true  that  college  men  have  only  a  little  practical  train- 
ing, but  they  generally  do  have  some  ;  and  this  small  amount  of  practical 
training  gives  college  men  the  lead  in  nearly  every  profession  because  it 
is  reenforced  by  a  broad  theoretical  training. 

32.  On  the  right  extremity  of  Cemetery  Ridge  is  Culp's  Hill,  rising 
at  a  sharp  angle  and  covered  with  trees  and  underbrush. 

33.  The  window-sashes  have  the  glass  all  broken  out  of  them  and 
several  have  old  green  shades  drawn  over  them. 

34.  He  was  uniformly  successful  and  inspiring  as  a  teacher. 

35.  We  knew  that  the  horse  was  somewhat  wild,  but  we  had  never 
had  any  trouble  with  him  before  to  speak  of. 

36.  We  spent  several  hours  here  in  looking  through  the  building 
under  the  direction  of  a  guide. 

37.  The  freshman  mathematics  are  likely  to  prove  difficult  even  to 
one  who  has  had  sufficient  preparation,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  time 
which  can  be  given  to  each  branch  is  short,  and  the  lessons  are  long  on 
that  account. 


EFFECTIVENESS  263 

38.  This  house  was  built  of  stone  and  it  should  have  stood  for  many 
years,  since  the  walls  were  nearly  two  and  a  half  feet  thick. 

39.  Very  little  is  known  of  Thomas  Paine's  life  from  the  time  of  his 
release  from  prison  in  1794  to  that  of  his  return  to  the  United  States  on 
the  invitation  of  Thomas  Jefferson  in  1802. 

40.  I  might  perhaps  have  been  inclined  to  ask  questions  at  another 
time. 

41.  This  stream  is  a  most  remarkable  one  on  account  of  its  pictu- 
resque surroundings  and  its  pure  water. 

42.  He  was  appointed  by  Napoleon  municipal  magistrate  of  Milan 
at  the  time  of  the  French  occupation  of  that  city. 

43.  The  most  efficient  help  that  we  could  have  desired  now  arrived, 
as  if  on  purpose  to  second  our  undertaking. 

44.  As  a  Christian  he  was  pure,  devout,  and  truthful ;  as  a  friend 
and  neighbor  he  was  helpful  and  unselfish ;  as  a  husband  and  father  he 
was  loving,  kind,  and  genial;  in  politics  he  was  an  uncompromising 
Democrat. 

45.  The  water  flows  from  under  a  large  rock  at  the  foot  of  a  hill, 
forms  into  a  stream,  and  runs  down  through  the  valley  till  it  meets  the 
creek,  as  one  would  naturally  expect. 

46.  Theoretical  principles  are  set  forth  by  a  science,  while  an  art 
makes  a  practical  application  of  these  principles. 

47.  The  land  on  which  the  village  stood  is  used  for  farming  purposes 
at  the  present  time. 

48.  For  over  two  miles  the  bottom  is  of  solid  rock  except  in  a  few 
places  where  there  are  falls. 

49.  Much  of  the  contention  and  the  bitterness  of  the  world  will 
disappear  when  we  shall  have  learned  to  put  ourselves  in  the  place  of 
others. 

50.  Our  car  was  completely  smashed  to  pieces,  having  been  struck 
by  the  engine  of  the  other  train. 

51.  Awheel,  which  has  little  ridges  on  its  surface,  is  placed  in  a 
tapering  circular  tube,  and  a  small  handle  is  fastened  at  the  point  where 
the  axis  enters  the  tube. 

52.  It  began  to  rain  shortly  after  I  took  refuge  in  the  tree,  and  I  was 
compelled  to  stay  here  in  the  rain  for  the  rest  of  the  afternoon,  by  the 
bull,  which  was  at  no  time  more  than  twenty  yards  away. 

53.  I  could  readily  write  a  theme  on  "  How  Coal  is  Mined,"  as  I  live 
in  the  heart  of  the  largest  anthracite  coal  region  in  the  world. 


264  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

54.  Nearly  all  the  misery,  crime,  distress,  and  idleness  in  the  world 
can  be  traced  to  strong  drink. 

55.  There  are  four  small  rooms  on  the  first  floor. 

56.  Most  of  the  positions  which  yield  large  salaries  are  held  by  col- 
lege graduates  at  the  present  time. 

57.  The  force  is  doubled  when  one  stationary  and  one  fixed  pulley 
are  used. 

58.  Any  one  can  readily  see  that  these  doctrines  are  objectionable 
to  a  certain  extent,  from  an  orthodox  point  of  view. 

59.  Meet,  if  you  dare,  the  appalling  countenances  of  those  who  sent 
you  here,  and  tell  them  that  you  suppressed  all  the  noble  feelings 
prompted  by  religion,  by  humanity,  by  national  independence,  and  by 
liberality ;  that  the  spectres  of  cimeters  and  crescents  gleamed  before 
you  and  alarmed  you;  that  you  cannot  tell  how,  but  that  some  un- 
known dread,  some  indefinable  danger,  some  indescribable  apprehen- 
sion, affrighted  you ;  and  that  you  shrank  from  the  declaration  of  your 
own  sentiments. 

60.  I  made  no  systematic  study  of  electricity  until  I  entered  the  high 
school  and  there  took  up  the  study  of  physics.  I  studied  as  much  of 
this,  the  subject  that  I  liked  best,  as  is  contained  in  an  ordinary  high 
school  text-book  on  physics.  I  spent  considerable  time  on  the  study 
of  physics.  It  soon  became  evident  to  me  that  the  part  of  physics 
which  appealed  to  me  most  strongly  was  that  which  dealt  with  the 
subject  of  electricity.  I  had  not  lost  my  early  fondness  for  mechanics, 
but  I  had  a  greater  liking  for  that  branch  of  physics  which  treats  of 
electricity. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 
EASE  AND   ELEGANCE 

To  attain  the  highest  success,  a  writer  should  phrase 
his  thoughts  not  only  with  clearness  and  force,  but  also 
with  ease  and  elegance.  Clearness  is  the  first  requisite ; 
one  should  say  precisely  what  he  means.  Force,  or  effec- 
tiveness, stands  next  in  importance ;  one  ought  to  express 
his  meaning  in  such  a  way  as  to  command  the  reader's 
attention.  These  two  qualities  are  absolutely  indispen- 
sable; and  they  should  therefore  take  precedence  of  all 
others.  It  rarely  happens,  however,  that  there  is  any  real 
conflict  between  these  two.  essentials  and  those  artistic 
qualities  which  help  to  give  literary  value  to  a  composition. 
Smoothness  and  refinement  are  worth  striving  for  because 
they  please  the  reader.  They  are  worth  seeking  both  be- 
cause they  are  positive  excellences,  and  because  they  help 
to  hold  the  reader's  attention.  Any  lack  of  ease,  or  of  dig- 
nity, or  of  refinement,  offends  good  taste  and  destroys 
interest.  An  awkward  or  crude  or  vulgar  mode  of  expres- 
sion is  a  stumbling-block  in  the  way  of  the  reader. 

Some  workmen  do  things  easily  and  naturally,  without 
hitch  or  jar ;  others  toil  at  their  task  clumsily  and  awk- 
wardly, tugging  and  straining  with  great  apparent  effort. 
There  is  the  same  difference  in  writers.  The  style  of  the 
great  English  and  American  prose-writers  is  easy,  smooth, 
and  flowing.  These  masters  appear  to  accomplish  their 
purpose  without  effort.     Their  thought  seems  almost  to 

265 


266  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

phrase  itself.  They  leave  no  gaps  or  rough  places.  The 
reader  glides  on  smoothly  from  sentence  to  sentence,  from 
paragraph  to  paragraph,  and  turns  over  with  pleasure  one 
perfect  page  after  another.  The  unpractised  writer,  on 
the  other  hand,  can  hardly  compose  a  short  theme  without 
showing  the  mighty  effort  he  is  putting  forth.  He  violates 
both  emphasis  and  euphony  by  the  unnecessary  repetition 
of  the  same  words  or  the  same  sounds.  He  uses  the  same 
form  of  sentence  with  monotonous  frequency.  He  may 
write  either  a  series  of  long,  lumbering  sentences  or  a 
succession  of  short,  jerky  ones.  Oftentimes  his  thought, 
instead  of  flowing  smoothly  in  a  straightforward,  natural 
course,  will  turn  and  twist  about,  and  occasionally  hide 
behind  some  harsh  or  clumsy  phrase.  His  work  lacks  ease 
because  he  has  not  yet  fully  learned  his  art. 

No  text-book  can  give  the  student  a  satisfactory  recipe  for 
ease  ;  no  teacher  can  tell  him  precisely  how  he  may  acquire 
an  easy  style.  "  True  ease  in  writing,"  says  Pope,  "comes 
from  art."  In  other  words,  ease  comes  only  with  a  mastery 
of  the  language  as  the  instrument  of  expression.  The  stu- 
dent must,  for  the  most  part,  learn  for  himself.  He  must 
write  constantly ;  he  must  make  innumerable  experiments ; 
he  must  apply  to  his  work  the  most  searching  criticism. 
Yet,  although  ease  is  not  a  thing  that  can  be  taught,  like 
the  rules  of  grammar,  it  is  perhaps  possible  to  make  a  few 
helpful  suggestions. 

I.  Study  the  great  masterpieces  of  English  prose.  Read 
and  study  the  works  of  such  writers  as  Hawthorne,  Irving, 
Addison,  Macaulay,  Newman,  Ruskin,  Stevenson,  and 
Thackeray.  You  will  thus  learn  something  of  the  infinite 
variety  and  flexibility  of  which  the  English  language  is 
capable.  You  may  thus  obtain  some  degree  of  ease  in  your 
own  writing,  not  by  conscious  imitation   of   these  great 


EASE   AND   ELEGANCE  267 

models,  but  by  a  process  of  unconscious  absorption ;  for  an 
easy  style,  like  easy  manners,  is  partly  due  to  the  uncon- 
scious influence  of  good  associates. 

2.  Seek  variety.  "The  one  rule,"  says  Stevenson,  "is 
to  be  infinitely  various."  Monotony  of  any  sort  displeases 
and  repels  the  reader.  Any  repetition,  except  when  it  is 
necessary  for  clearness  or  force,  wearies  him.  The  English 
language  is  rich  in  synonyms,  and  there  is  little  excuse  for 
the  tiresome  repetition  of  the  same  word  or  the  same 
sound.  One  soon  tires  of  a  writer  who  makes  all  his 
sentences  of  about  equal  length,  or  casts  them  all  in  the 
same  mould.  Our  native  tongue  is  flexible  enough  to 
admit  of  a  wide  variety  in  the  length  and  the  structure  of 
sentences,  and  in  the  arrangement  of  words,  phrases,  and 
clauses.  By  using  synonyms,  by  transposing  words  and 
phrases,  by  changing  the  grammatical  construction,  by 
varying  the  form  and  the  length  of  his  sentence,  by  con- 
stantly experimenting  with  the  language,  the  student  can 
secure  a  pleasing  variety  in  the  mode  of  expression.  In 
short,  with  a  little  ingenuity,  almost  any  one  can  obtain 
enough  variety  in  word  and  sound  and  structure  to  make 
his  thought  flow  easily  and  smoothly. 

3.  Test  every  sentence  by  reading  it  aloud.  Ease  is  very 
largely  a  matter  of  euphony.  The  ear  must  be  trained 
to  detect  the  needless  repetition  of  words,  the  jingling 
recurrence  of  the  same  sound,  and  any  combination  of 
words  which  are  hard  to  pronounce  together.  These  com- 
mon sins  against  euphony  a  writer  can  usually  discover 
only  by  reading  his  composition  aloud.  When  he  has  once 
detected  any  disagreeable  roughness  or  sameness  of  sound, 
he  will  generally  find  it  an  easy  matter  to  remove  the  fault 
by  the  use  of  different  words,  or  by  some  change  in  the 
grammatical  construction,  or  by  a  rearrangement  of  the 


268  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

sentence.  The  student  must  train  himself  to  recognize 
any  lack  of  smoothness  in  his  work ;  and  he  can  best  give 
himself  this  training  by  reading  aloud  every  sentence  and 
paragraph  that  he  writes.  It  is  perhaps  worth  while  to 
point  out  more  fully  and  to  illustrate  the  commonest 
violations  of  euphony. 

(a)  The  needless  repetition  of  the  same  word  annoys  the 
reader  and  spoils  the  ease  and  smoothness  of  the  sentence. 
This  fault  is  illustrated  by  the  following  examples :  — 

We  are  willing  to  admit  that  it  is  not  at  all  improbable  that  some 
students  may  become  so  deeply  interested  in  their  athletic  sports  that 
they  will  actually  forget  that  to  acquire  an  education  was  their  primary 
purpose  in  coming  to  college. 

The  man  who  does  this  work  is  called  a  drawer.  A  drawer  ordi- 
narily draws  two  or  three  ovens  a  day,  but  a  good  drawer  can  some- 
times draw  four.  A  drawer  begins  his  work  about  two  o'clock  in  the 
morning  and  finishes  about  noon. 

(b)  Akin  to  the  faulty  repetition  of  the  same  expression 
is  the  jingling  recurrence  of  the  same  sound.  The  spe- 
cific fault  may  be  an  inadvertent  rhyme,  the  unintentional 
repetition  of  some  syllable  like  -ness,  -ence,  -in,  -ly,  or  -ing, 
excessive  alliteration,  or  too  much  sibilance.  These  faults, 
which  can  generally  be  removed  with  a  little  ingenuity,  are 
illustrated  by  the  following  sentences  :  — 

When  the  cutting  is  completed,  the  mass  again  is  heated. 

By  waking  ear/y  mornings,  by  being  particular/^  actively  engaged  all 
day,  and  by  studying  hard  evenings,  he  attained  success,  but  ruined  his 
health. 

In  ordinary  prose  the  alleged  *  artful  aid"  of  a/literation  almost 
always  appears  to  be  an  artificial  and  questionable  device. 

Euphony  en/bins  us  to  avoid  jingling  and  jangling  and  jarring 
sounds. 

Careful  writers  always  avoid  such  ex^emve  .ribilamre  as  is  produced 
by  a  juc^e^ion  of  j-j-oundj1. 


EASE   AND   ELEGANCE  269 

(c)  The  easy  movement  of  a  sentence  is  sometimes 
clogged  by  a  harsh  combination  of  sounds,  or  by  a  succes- 
sion of  accented  or  of  unaccented  syllables.  In  the  follow- 
ing sentences  the  lack  of  smoothness  is  evident :  — 

He  took  up  the  wMe  frail  fabric  and  carefully  removed  every  fifth 
thread. 

This  little  group  of  timid  children  seemed  to  recoil  when  they  heard 
the  voices  of  the  hoarse  roysterers  who  were  coming  down  the  street. 

He  worked  hard  there  and  got  no  pay. 

This  tribunal  was  net  the  first  peremptorily  to  adjudge  a  prisoner's 
guilt  and  arbitrarily  to  pronounce  his  doom. 

In  the  first  two  sentences  smoothness  is  destroyed  by 
certain  combinations  of  sounds  which  are  hard  to  pro- 
nounce together.  The  third  sentence  lacks  ease  because 
it  is  made  up  of  a  series  of  accented  monosyllables.  In 
the  fourth  example  a  group  of  six  unaccented  syllables 
occurs  in  each  of  the  two  phrases,  "peremptorily  to 
adjudge"  and  "arbitrarily  to  pronounce." 

Perhaps  the  most  serious  and  frequent  violations  of  ease 
are  caused  by  sheer  awkwardness  either  in  the  mode  of 
expression  or  in  the  arrangement  of  words  and  phrases. 
The  offending  member  is  often  a  clumsy  and  unwieldy 
expression.  Sometimes  the  awkwardness  is  caused  by  an 
unbroken  cluster  of  adverbial  phrases.  Occasionally  a 
single  word  ends  a  sentence  with  a  sudden  jerk.  Again, 
when  unimportant  words  are  so  placed  as  to  receive  undue 
stress,  the  easy  movement  of  the  sentence  is  destroyed.  All 
these  faults  are  illustrated  by  the  following  examples  :  — 

1 .  The  harvesting  of  tobacco  occurs  in  the  latter  part  of  August. 

2.  Certainly  no  one  can  entertain  an  idea  other  than  that  electric 
lights  would  be  a  benefit  to  Milton. 

3.  I  stepped  off  the  train  at  Philadelphia,  in  the  Broad  Street  Sta- 
tion, at  eight  o'clock  in  the  morning. 


270  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

4.  The  mill  contains  a  cylinder  in  which  a  horizontal  shaft,  about 
twenty  feet  long  and  similar  to  a  screw-propeller,  revolves. 

5.  This  course  is  quite  as  good  as,  and  in  some  respects  better  than, 
the  one  given  last  year. 

With  very  little  effort  all  awkwardness  can  be  removed 
from  these  sentences ;  and  any  one  can  see  how  much  is 
gained  by  the  revision  :  — 

1 .  Tobacco  is  harvested  in  the  latter  part  of  August. 

2.  Certainly  every  one  must  admit  that  electric  lights  would  be  a 
benefit  to  Milton. 

3.  At  eight  o'clock  in  the  morning  I  stepped  off  the  train  in  the 
Broad  Street  Station  at  Philadelphia. 

4.  The  mill  contains  a  cylinder  in  which  revolves  a  horizontal  shaft 
about  twenty  feet  long,  and  similar  to  a  screw-propeller. 

5.  This  course  is  quite  as  good  as  the  one  given  last  year,  and  in 
some  respects  even  better. 

Elegance,  like  ease,  is  an  artistic  quality.  It  has  been 
denned  as  that  "  quality  of  style  which  pleases  the  taste." 
It  is  impossible  to  give  any  very  satisfactory  definition  or 
description  of  this  quality.  The  term  elegance  stands  for 
propriety,  good  taste,  and  refinement  in  the  use  of  lan- 
guage. Here,  again,  in  the  way  of  positive  directions,  a 
text-book  cannot  give  the  student  much  help.  No  one  can 
furnish  him  with  a  simple  analysis  of  elegance  or  an  easy 
recipe  for  securing  it.  He  must  be  content  to  advance 
slowly.  Two  things  he  can  do  for  himself :  by  reading 
the  works  of  good  English  and  American  prose-writers  he 
can  cultivate  good  taste  in  literature,  a  sense  of  propriety 
in  the  use  of  language,  and  an  intelligent  appreciation  of 
literary  refinement  and  beauty ;  and  in  his  practical  work 
of  theme-writing  he  can  strive  to  show  his  regard  for  good 
taste  and  propriety,  and  to  give  refinement  and  finish  to 
his  work.     Positive  elegance  must  come  to  a  writer  as  a 


EASE   AND   ELEGANCE  27 1 

result  of  thoughtful  reading  and  that  unremitting  practice 
which  alone  brings  mastery. 

Positive  inelegance  should  always  be  avoided.  No  one 
can  afford  to  offend  his  readers  by  ignorance,  awkward- 
ness, or  slovenliness.  A  man's  style  will  justly  be  con- 
sidered inelegant  if  he  allows  himself  to  violate  Good  Use 
or  good  taste.  He  must  avoid  solecisms  and  improprieties 
in  the  use  of  words.  He  must  shun  incongruity,  uncouth- 
ness,  and  vulgarity.  The  man  who  keeps  his  writing  free 
from  violations  of  Good  Use  and  good  taste,  and  who  con- 
scientiously aims  at  refinement  in  the  use  of  language,  is  in 
a  fair  way  to  attain  elegance. 

Good  taste  is  sometimes  violated  in  the  use  of  figurative 
language.  Several  common  errors  should  be  pointed  out. 
First,  in  prose  composition  figures  of  speech  should  not  be 
used  purely  for  ornament ;  nor  should  they  be  used  when 
the  thought  is  ordinary  and  commonplace.  Secondly,  figu- 
rative language  should  not  be  incongruously  mixed  with 
literal  statement.  Thirdly,  a  figure  of  speech  should  not  be 
inconsistent  or  absurd.  Fourthly,  one  figure  of  speech  should 
not  be  mixed  with  another.  These  faults  in  the  use  of  figu- 
rative language  are  illustrated  by  the  following  examples  :  — 

1.  It  was  then  that  the  finger  of  Finance  first  pointed  out  the  possi- 
bilities of  fruit  culture. 

2.  Chaucer  was  the  father  of  English  poetry  and  a  great  student  of 
Italian  literature. 

3.  Finding  that  he  could  not  succeed  in  athletics,  he  next  tried  his 
hand  at  singing. 

4.  This  statement  was  the  keynote  of  the  Democratic  platform,  and 
strict  adherence  to  it  was  regarded  as  a  sure  touchstone  for  testing  party 
loyalty. 

In  conclusion,  a  word  of  caution  is  necessary.  Ease 
and  elegance  should  not  be  obtained  at  the  expense  of 


272  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

clearness  and  effectiveness.  Sense  should  not  be  sacri- 
ficed to  sound;  nor  should  strength  give  way  to  smooth- 
ness and  refinement.  Artistic  perfection  should  be  made 
to  accompany  the  more  substantial  qualities  of  good  writ- 
ing, but  it  should  never  be  allowed  to  take  their  place. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Write  a  theme  on  one  of  the  subjects  found  in  List  V,  Appendix 
E,  or  on  some  subject  suggested  by  this  list. 

II.    Point  out,  in  each  of  the  following  sentences,  any  violation  of 
ease  or  elegance,  and  show  how  the  fault  may  be  removed  :  — 

i.  The  river,  sparkling  in  the  sun,  and  the  distant  mountains, 
clothed  in  blue,  made  a  scene  that,  if  once  seen,  will  never  be 
forgotten. 

2.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  a  boy  begins  to  look  at  life  from  a  more 
serious  point  of  view  than  that  from  which  he  did  a  few  years  previously. 

3.  By  doing  piece-work,  in  each  month  the  wood-turner  receives  as 
much  as  if  not  more  than  if  he  were  working  by  the  day. 

4.  On  one  side  of  the  street  was  a  gutter,  in  which  ran  clear,  cold 
spring  water,  which  had  been  caught  on  Mont  Pelee,  which  seemed  to 
tower  above  us  now. 

5.  A  man  will  not  deal  there  unless  he  has  to. 

6.  Those  defects  that  are  detected  are  immediately  corrected. 

7.  At  that  time  the  country  was  densely  covered  with  huge  pine, 
hemlock,  and  oak  trees.  These  forests  furnished  a  fine  rendezvous  for 
large  game.  It  was  for  this  game  that  a  party  of  settlers  decided  to 
hunt. 

8.  I  have  always  regarded  my  then  situation  as  an  exceedingly 
annoying  and  perplexing  predicament. 

9.  The  barrel  was  now  taken  in  tow  by  men  in  a  boat  and  taken 
to  the  shore. 

10.  In  the  early  spring  the  maple-sugar  makers  get  ready  to  make 
maple  sugar. 

11.  As  a  result  of  the  hills  of  Greensburg,  it  is  well  drained  and 
therefore  free  from  much  sickness. 

12.  The  new  material  alone  is  treated  in  this  way,  as  the  advertise- 
ments are  set  up  by  hand  each  day. 


EASE  AND   ELEGANCE  273 

13.  He  walked  about  twenty  yards  away  from,  then  leisurely  re- 
turned to,  and  finally  entered  the  carriage. 

14.  The  stowing  away  of  the  hay  in  the  mow  is  a  very  hot  job  for 
the  person  in  the  mow.  The  farmer  will  probably  stand  on  the  wagon 
and  pitch  the  hay  into  the  mow,  while  his  helpers  will  be  in  the  mow, 
distributing  the  hay  evenly  over  the  mow. 

15.  The  hardest  part  of  my  preparation  for  college  was  deciding 
where  to  prepare  for  college,  and  what  college  I  was  going  to  prepare  for. 

16.  The  incompetent  school  board  is  not  by  any  means  the  weakest 
of  the  four  mentioned  points. 

17.  There  are  decidedly  two  sides  to  this  question. 

18.  Men  and  women  of  this  class  seem  to  have  no  perception  of  the 
proper  blending  of  colors  whatever. 

19.  Scarcely  a  day  passes  by  but  one  may  find  a  crowd  of  young 
people  here  having  a  picnic. 

20.  As  soon  as  the  wild-cat  hit  the  ground  one  of  the  men  hit  it 
with  a  large  club. 

21.  The  new  political  current,  which  was  fanned  into  an  ardent 
flame  by  the  fiery  eloquence  of  the  spell-binders,  failed  to  take  root  in 
this  region. 

22.  A  physician  must  take  the  abuse  of  patients  who  do  not  wish  to 
take  his  medicine. 

23.  Upon  this  grave  stood  a  battered  iron  cross  badly  rusted  by  the 
tooth  of  time. 

24.  A  few  weeks  ago,  on  a  Sunday  afternoon,  I  with  three  of  my 
friends  took  a  trip  up  Standing  Stone  Mountain. 

25.  The  grounds  of  the  different  schools  are  beautiful.  They  are 
planted  with  different  kinds  of  shade  trees.  Upon  each  campus  is  a 
well  of  excellent  water.  These  wells  are  cleaned  out  at  least  once 
every  year.  This  Drecaution  removes  all  fear  of  disease.  Each  cam- 
pus also  has  a  tall  flag-pole.  From  each  pole  float  the  stars  and  stripes 
during  school  days.     This  teaches  patriotism. 

26.  The  next  speech  was  little  more  than  a  flowery  flow  of  language. 

27.  That  is  an  abuse  that,  I  am  sure,  even  the  plea  that  such  has 
always  been  the  custom  should  not  excuse. 

28.  He  was  much  astounded  by  the  —  to  him  —  impossible  and 
unheard-of  combination  of  drunkenness  and  religion. 

29.  These  two  teachers  influenced  me  in  that  they  also  caused  me 
to  take  a  deeper  interest  in  my  studies  and  to  prepare  for  college. 


274  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

30.  Then  I  looked  and  saw  that  goat  go  straight  up  the  plank. 

31.  If  the  students  are  required  to  attend  chapel,  the  teachers 
should  be  required  to  too. 

32.  All  these  have  had  their  day,  and  they  have  gone  their  way,  and 
now  we  hear  of  them  no  more. 

33.  There  are  fewer  outbreaks  here  than  might  be  expected  in  a 
country  which  is  only  just  emerging  from  the  pursuit  of  its  infant  indus- 
tries. 

34.  The  water  is  run  through  large  pipes  and  filters  from  the  reser- 
voirs into  the  pumps  by  means  of  gravitation. 

35.  The  business  buildings  are,  on  the  whole,  modern  in  structure, 
there  being  a  number  of  large  business  blocks  and  handsome  residences. 

36.  Being  thus  connected  with  the  rest  of  the  country,  we  received 
good  fresh  provisions  and  many  visitors. 

37.  It  seems  that  her  years  of  observation,  as  well  as  those  of  her 
ancestors,  had  made  it  conclusive  that  it  was  a  certain  condition  of  the 
new  moon  that  caused  the  rainy  weather. 

38.  The  cries  of  anguish  that  arose  from  those  dishevelled  and  grief- 
stricken  women  presented  an  exciting  spectacle. 

39.  When  one  is  studying  by  one's  self,  it  is  a  great  deal  harder  to 
get  a  lesson  by  himself  than  if  he  had  some  one  with  him  that  has  been 
over  like  work  before. 

40.  In  this  question,  as  in  all  matters  of  economic  interest,  any 
steps  that  the  government  takes  must  go  hand  in  hand  with  those 
of  the  manufacturers.  4 

41.  By  means  of  the  telephone  and  the  telegraph  intelligence  is 
transmitted  almost  instantaneously  to  great  distances  over  a  wire. 

42.  The  soft  sticky  mud  associated  itself  intimately  with  our  shoes 
and  trousers. 

43.  The  land  being  near  Philadelphia,  which  affords  a  good  market 
for  produce,  the  principal  occupation  of  the  people  fs  farming. 

44.  Two  reservoirs  of  this  size  keep  the  town  from  any  fear  .of  the 
demand  exhausting  the  supply  of  water  in  case  of  a  large  fire  or  a  pro- 
longed drought. 

45.  These  match-splints  are  cut  out  of  blocks  of  wood  twice  as  long 
as  the  match,  as  we  see  it,  is. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
THE   REVISION   OF  THE   SENTENCE 

However  skilful  a  writer  may  be,  it  rarely  happens 
that  the  first  draft  of  his  composition  is  a  finished  piece 
of  writing.  The  important  work  of  revision  yet  remains. 
In  the  haste  of  composition,  when  a  number  of  thoughts 
come  thronging  into  one's  mind,  and  in  the  all-absorbing 
task  of  giving  adequate  expression  to  each  thought  as  it 
arises,  every  one  is  liable  to  violate  some  of  the  principles 
of  Rhetoric  and  some  of  the  requirements  of  Good  Use ; 
for  no  man,  in  the  act  of  expressing  his  thoughts,  can  give 
his  conscious  attention  to  the  many  matters  of  detail  and 
the  various  devices  which  are  necessary  to  the  correctness, 
clearness,  and  effectiveness  of  the  sentence.  Hence,  in 
the  revision  of  his  theme,  the  student  will  find  it  necessary 
to  correct  any  violations  of  Good  Use,  and  to  make  a  rigid 
application  of  the  principles  of  Composition  to  the  con- 
struction of  his  sentences. 

In  revising  his  work  one  should  first  of  all  see  that  each 
sentence  is  perfect  in  such  purely  mechanical  matters  as 
capitalization,  punctuation,  and  spelling.  No  one  is  likely 
to  find  it  a  very  difficult  task  to  learn  the  correct  use  of 
capital  letters  and  the  marks  of  punctuation.  Such  errors 
as  are  due  to  haste  or  inadvertence  can  readily  be  corrected. 
If  a  student  has  any  doubt  as  to  the  correct  spelling  of  a 
word,  he  should  not  be  too  lazy  or  indifferent  to  consult 

*75 


276  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

the  dictionary.  Having  learned  what  Good  Use  has  pre- 
scribed in  these  matters,  he  should  make  it  a  point  to 
see  that  every  sentence  is  mechanically  perfect  before  he 
leaves  it. 

Again,  both  in  the  words  that  he  uses  and  in  the  gram- 
matical construction  of  his  sentences,  the  student,  in  revis- 
ing his  theme,  should  be  on  the  lookout  for  any  violation 
of  Good  Use.  He  should  not  permit  himself  to  use  a 
single  word  loosely  or  carelessly,  without  sufficient  knowl- 
edge of  its  meaning  and  its  propriety.1  Any  doubt  should 
be  immediately  cleared  up  by  reference  to  the  dictionary. 
In  like  manner  he  should  scrutinize  each  sentence  for  the 
purpose  of  discovering  and  correcting  any  error  in  gram- 
mar or  any  violation  of  English  idiom.  In  the  haste  of 
composition  scarcely  any  one  writes  with  invariable  cor- 
rectness. Yet  if  the  student's  work  receives  competent 
criticism,  he  soon  learns  what  particular  mistakes  in  gram- 
mar he  is  liable  to  make.  In  revising  the  first  draft  of  his 
theme  he  should  make  it  his  business  to  correct  those 
errors  which  are  peculiar  to  himself  and  any  others  which 
he  may  have  unwittingly  made. 

When  the  sentence  has  been  made  to  conform  to  all  the 
requirements  of  Good  Use,  it  should  next  be  examined 
with  reference  to  the  principles  of  Composition.  The 
student  will  find  it  natural  to  inquire  first  whether  the 
principle  of  Unity  has  been  applied  to  the  sentence ;  for 
it  is  to  this  principle  that  the  sentence  owes  its  existence. 
He  will  test  the  unity  of  each  sentence  by  asking  himself 
questions  like  the  following :  Is  this  group  of  words  really 
a  sentence  ?  Is  it  grammatically  complete,  or  is  it  merely 
a  phrase  or  a  clause  masquerading  as  a  sentence  ?    Does  it 

1  For  a  discussion  of  Good  Use  as  it  applies  to  words,  the  student  is  referred 
to  the  next  chapter. 


REVISION   OF  THE  SENTENCE  277 

express  a  complete  thought,  or  is  it  only  a  fragment  of  a 
complete  thought,  belonging  in  reality  to  the  preceding  or 
to  the  following  sentence  ?  Are  all  its  parts  so  intimately 
and  inseparably  related  as  to  give  it  organic  unity  ?  Or 
does  it  express  several  complete  thoughts  which  should  be 
put  into  separate  sentences  ?  Finally,  does  it  possess  unity 
of  expression  ?  That  is  to  say,  is  the  form  of  the  sentence 
such  as  to  make  the  unity  of  thought  immediately  evident 
to  the  reader  ?  By  applying  such  tests  as  these  one  will 
be  able  so  to  revise  each  sentence  as  to  give  it  both  unity  of 
thought  and  unity  of  expression. 

The  principle  of  Coherence  should  next  be  applied  to 
the  revision  of  each  sentence.  The  writer  should  ask  him- 
self :  Is  there  a  clear,  logical  relation  between  this  sentence 
and  the  preceding  sentence  or  sentences  ?  Is  a  connecting 
word  necessary,  and  have  I  used  the  right  one  ?  Does 
every  personal,  demonstrative,  and  relative  pronoun  have 
an  unmistakable  antecedent  ?  Does  every  participial  phrase 
refer  definitely  to  the  noun  or  pronoun  to  which  it  belongs  ? 
Have  I  omitted  any  word  or  phrase  that  is  essential  to 
perfect  clearness  ?  In  the  expression  of  ideas  that  are 
similar  and  parallel,  have  I  made  any  needless  or  confus- 
ing change  in  the  grammatical  construction  ?  In  short, 
have  I  expressed  my  thought  with  such  absolute  clearness 
that  the  reader  cannot  possibly  misunderstand  my  mean- 
ing ?  The  student  who  can  give  himself  satisfactory  an- 
swers to  these  questions  may  feel  sure  that  he  has  applied 
the  principle  of  Coherence  to  his  sentences. 

When  a  writer  has  made  each  sentence  coherent,  he 
should  next  aim  to  make  it  emphatic.  In  his  endeavor  to 
secure  effectiveness  he  may  well  ask  himself  (1)  whether 
he  has  adopted  the  most  effective  mode  of  expression,  and 
(2)  whether  he  has  obtained  the  most  emphatic  arrange- 


278  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

ment.  In  seeking  a  practical  answer  to  the  first  of  these 
questions,  he  may  occasionally  find  it  possible  to  use  a 
more  forcible  word,  or  to  express  his  thought  more  con- 
cisely, or  to  emphasize  important  words  by  skilful  repetition, 
or  to  obtain  vividness  and  force  by  the  use  of  figurative 
language.  In  the  second  place,  he  should  note  whether 
the  most  important  words  in  the  sentence  stand  at  the 
beginning  and  the  end.  If  he  finds  them  massed  some- 
where in  the  body  of  the  sentence,  he  should  so  rearrange 
the  parts  or  so  change  the  construction  as  to  give  the  most 
significant  words  a  place  of  prominence  at  the  beginning 
or  the  end.  If  he  finds  it  impossible  to  make  both  these 
points  emphatic,  he  should  at  least  avoid  a  feeble  ending. 
He  should  also  take  pains  to  follow  the  order  of  climax  in 
the  arrangement  of  a  series  of  words,  phrases,  or  clauses. 
By  thus  scrutinizing  both  the  mode  of  expression  and  the 
arrangement,  he  can  readily  apply  the  principle  of  Emphasis 
to  the  revision  of  his  sentences. 

Finally,  the  student  should  examine  all  the  sentences  of 
his  theme  in  order  to  detect  any  violations  of  ease  and  ele- 
gance. In  revising  his  work  he  should  try  to  secure  suffi- 
cient variety  in  the  length  and  the  grammatical  construction 
of  sentences,  and  in  the  arrangement  of  phrases  and  clauses; 
he  should  remove  tiresome  repetitions,  any  jingling  recur- 
rence of  the  same  sound,  any  harsh  or  unwieldy  phrases ; 
he  should  be  on  the  lookout  for  any  awkwardness  in  ex- 
pression or  in  arrangement;  and  he  should  correct  any 
violations  of  good  taste.  In  a  word,  he  should  polish  his 
work;  he  should  aim  to  give  artistic  perfection  to  every 
sentence  and  every  paragraph  that  he  writes. 


REVISION   OF   THE   SENTENCE  279 


EXERCISES 

I.  Write  a  theme  on  one  of  the  subjects  found  in  List  VI,  Appen- 
dix E,  or  on  one  of  the  subjects  suggested  by  this  list. 

II.  Criticise  the  following  sentences,  and  revise  them  in  such  a  way 
as  to  remove  all  errors  and  defects  :  — 

1.  Train-load  after  train-load  ot  coal  are  hauled  out  of  this  region 
daily. 

2.  The  stone  is  now  taken  to  a  planer.  This  planer  consists  of  a 
moving,  platform-like  table.  This  table  carries  the  stone  back  and  forth 
under  sharp  chisels. 

3.  He  receives  a  certain  sum  for  each  trip  according  to  the  distance, 
which  averages  about  a  dollar  a  mile. 

4.  I  went  home  saying  I  should  never  yell  and  get  so  excited  again, 
and  I  never  have. 

5.  There  is  enough  and  to  spare  of  ways  to  curb  the  most  lordly 
spirit  without  being  cruel. 

6.  This  second  mode  of  powwowing  is  best  illustrated  at  a  shooting- 
match,  where  most  of  the  shooters  are  of  a  superstitious  nature.  If 
some  one  is  doing  good  shooting,  and  suddenly  he  makes  a  few  bad 
shots,  he  immediately  believes  that  his  gun  is  bewitched. 

7.  My  native  town  is  a  city  of  about  fifty  thousand  people,  with 
abundant  communication  with  the  outside  world,  whose  principal  in- 
dustry is  the  mining  of  anthracite  coal. 

8.  On  returning  home,  the  certificate  which  I  had  received  as  a  result 
of  this  examination  admitted  me  to  the  Leavenworth  High  School. 

9.  The  snowball  battle  which  occurred  last  Thursday  between  the 
two  classes  was  the  result  of  the  freshmen  getting  their  picture  taken. 

10.  The  passengers  stepped  out  at  Mount  Vernon  and  visited  the 
home  of  the  nation's  great  founder  for  an  hour. 

1 1 .  The  English  work  consisted  of  the  study  of  rhetoric  and  a  little 
practice  in  composition  was  given  the  first  year. 

12.  The  Hungarians  have  black  hair,  dark  eyes,  a  high  forehead,  and 
a  large  round  face. 

13.  On  each  side  of  the  grove  is  situated  two  apple  orchards. 

14.  One  row  of  cottages  were  now  on  fire,  so  we  had  to  retire. 

15.  There  are  mountains  on  the  other  side  of  the  river  and  at  the 
east  end  of  the  town  the  river  turns  south,  cutting  through  the  moun- 


280  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

tains,  which  gives  a  view  of  Columbia,  Wrightsville,  and  the  surround- 
ing country. 

1 6.  This  man  then  made  a  visit  to  each  of  their  homes  and  tried  to 
persuade  him  to  become  a  book  agent. 

17.  Pig-iron  is  made  at  Greenwood  Furnace  differently  from  what  it 
is  at  any  other  place  in  the  state. 

18.  The  dance  is  one  that  is  looked  forward  to  by  all  the  teachers  as 
a  night  of  great  enjoyment. 

19.  In  the  packing-room  girls  sort  the  matches  and  pack  the  good 
ones  into  boxes.  These  boxes  hold  from  fifty  to  five  hundred  matches 
each. 

20.  Although  my  native  town  is  not  so  large,  it  has  a  neat  appear- 
ance. 

21.  Other  men  are  employed  by  the  Sheridan  Iron  Company  and 
work  in  the  furnaces  at  Sheridan. 

22.  The  trip  coming  back  seemed  longer  than  the  one  going. 

23.  Straight  before  us  we  beheld  a  beautiful  sunset.  It  was  sinking 
and  was  soon  a  mere  segment  cut  out  by  the  V  of  the  hills. 

24.  In  the  rolling-room  iron  bars  are  gradually  flattened  into  plates 
about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  after  running  through  eight  sets  of 
rollers. 

25.  Remembering  that  a  lumberman  claims  no  place  in  society 
nor  tries  to  win  for  himself  any  fame,  and  then  to  look  at  the  noble 
deeds  of  loyalty  and  finally  at  the  compensation  they  receive  for 
their  work,  I  think  that  the  life  of  a  lumberman  is  a  most  interesting 
one. 

26.  The  last  reason  is  perhaps  as  important  in  a  sense  and  yet  not 
more  so  than  the  first. 

27.  The  game  that  impressed  me  most  was  one  of  destiny. 

28.  Much  driftwood  and  valuable  timber  was  sweeping  along  with 
the  flood. 

29.  If  we  did  not  play  well,  we  played  up  to  a  standard  that  we 
thought  well. 

30.  But  a  fireman  has  something  else  to  do  than  to  sit  and  ring  the 
bell,  and  it  was  not  very  long  before  I  found  out  that  it  was  hard  work. 

31.  This  single  ladder  is  wide  enough  to  admit  of  another  narrower 
one  laying  between  the  stiles. 

32.  Everything  seemed  to  be  fast  asleep  except  a  rooster,  who  loudly 
announced  the  coming  of  day. 


REVISION   OF  THE   SENTENCE  281 

33.  After  pouring,  the  sand  is  knocked  off  and  the  castings  are  ready 
for  use,  as  soon  as  they  become  cool  enough  to  handle. 

34.  The  first  years,  then,  when  the  foundation  is  laid,  is  what 
requires  care  and  thought. 

35.  The  air  at  this  hour  was  cool  and  added  greatly  to  our  enjoy- 
ment. 

36.  Thousands  of  men  are  engaged  in  digging  and  conveying  coal 
from  the  mines  to  the  consumer. 

37.  The  situation  of  the  school  makes  it  an  ideal  place  for  students, 
as  it  has  a  healthful  climate. 

38.  A  certain  amount  is  put  into  the  furnace  at  one  time.  This  is 
regulated  by  the  number  of  blowers  at  work. 

39.  When  I  thought  of  what  depended  on  me,  it  was  felt  by  me  as  a 
constant  spur  to  do  my  best. 

40.  When  this  is  done,  the  cigar  is  laid  on  the  cutter,  cut  off  the 
proper  length,  laid  on  a  rack,  tied  a  hundred  in  a  bundle,  and  taken  to 
the  packing-room. 

41 .  The  photographer  was  very  slow  and  in  consequence  he  did  not 
take  a  good  picture,  as  some  of  the  sophomores  spied  us,  and  a  num- 
ber of  freshmen  had  to  protect  his  instruments. 

42.  While  swearing  at  a  man  who  had  lost  all  his  money  by  gam- 
bling, and  who  had  come  to  him  asking  him  for  a  loan,  he  fell  over  dead. 

43.  Marion  is  situated  in  the  Cumberland  Valley,  midway  between 
Harrisburg  and  Winchester,  which  is  one  of  the  most  delightful  valleys 
in  the  state. 

44.  A  large  amount  of  time  and  money  are  spent  each  year  in  train- 
ing the  various  athletic  teams. 

45.  I  always  found  him  exceedingly  amusing  when  watching  him 
driving  his  team. 

46.  The  house  in  which  they  were  concealed  was  a  large  double  one 
built  of  stone,  and  which  a  man  of  the  name  of  Bowen  owned,  who 
rented  it  to  John  Powell,  who  owned  the  slaves. 

47.  I  turned  from  them  with  my  ardor  for  selling  books  at  low  tide. 

48.  We  ate  like  starvelings,  and  after  finishing  our  meal,  we  decided 
to  let  some  one  else  try  their  luck. 

49.  I  then  made  a  device  the  shape  of  a  figure  4  out  of  a  one-half- 
inch-square  stick,  to  hold  the  lid  up. 

50.  Seven  years  I  spent  in  foolish  idleness,  twelve  in  going  to  school, 
and  one  in  an  insurance  office. 


282  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

51.  Desirous  of  becoming  an  electrical  engineer,  no  other  college 
offered  me  a  course  in  which  theory  and  practice  are  as  judiciously 
combined  as  in  this  institution. 

52.  The  finest  and  greatest  quality  of  manliness  is  love.  The  qual- 
ity which  makes  us  think  kindly  of  our  fellow-men  whenever  it  is  at  all 
possible  to  do  so ;  the  quality  which  bids  us  think  as  little  as  possible 
of  ourselves  and  to  concede  as  much  as  possible  to  others. 

53.  At  last  we  reached  home,  much  too  early  for  us,  but  to  the  great 
delight  of  the  chaperons,  who  thought  we  were  the  noisiest  crowd  they 
ever  took  care  of. 

54.  When  the  pattern-maker  gets  the  drawings,  his  business  is  to 
make  all  the  parts  which  are  to  be  cast,  out  of  wood. 

55.  So  that  we  would  not  miss  the  same  recitation  two  days  of  every 
week,  we  would  not  go  the  same  period  every  week,  but  change  our 
time  of  going. 

56.  I  desire  to  be  a  good  mechanical  engineer,  for  I  think  it  is  the 
finest  profession  a  man  can  follow. 

57.  Catching  crabs  is  different  from  all  other  kinds  of  fishing,  for  they 
are  caught  by  salted  eels  being  inserted  between  the  strands  of  a  rope. 

58.  There  has  recently  been  a  few  houses  built  on  the  spot  where 
the  town  stood  originally. 

59.  I  remember  entering  the  clothing  store  of  a  Jew,  who,  as  every- 
body knows,  is  a  close  business  man. 

60.  The  cylinders  are  then  flattened  by  rubbing  blocks  of  hard  wood 
fastened  to  long  poles,  over  them. 

61.  After  walking  about  the  grounds  for  an  hour,  the  whistle  sounded 
and  we  had  to  hurry  away. 

62.  We  were  fishing  with  pickerel  hooks,  and  we  caught  a  big  one 
in  less  than  ten  minutes. 

63.  A  fuse  is  also  placed  near  this  switch.  This  fuse  is  a  small  wire 
tested  to  carry  a  certain  number  of  volts.  Its  purpose  is  to  prevent 
heavy  currents  of  electricity  from  passing  into  the  building. 

64.  As  soon  as  it  was  light  the  people  begun  to  search  for  dead 
bodies,  which  probably  continued  for  nearly  a  month. 

65.  An  hour's  rowing  tired  us,  so  we  landed  and  had  our  lunch. 

66.  Nearly  every  wave  broke  over  the  boat  and  were  fast  filling  it 
with  water. 

67.  After  drifting  helplessly  for  a  half  an  hour,  a  change  of  wind  drove 
us  toward  a  small  island. 


REVISION   OF   THE   SENTENCE  283 

68.  There  were  three  drawers  in  the  end  of  each  table,  in  which  to 
store  unfinished  pieces  of  work. 

69.  When  the  athletic  teams  go  away  to  play  with  another  team, 
many  lessons  are  missed,  and  those  that  have  too  much  interest  in 
athletic  sports  are  generally  those  that  do  not  make  up  the  lessons  they 
missed. 

70.  It  seems  perfectly  natural  that  a  doctor  should  go  in  and  see  a 
person  who  may  have  the  most  contagious  disease,  and  nevertheless  be 
placed  in  a  most  dangerous  position,  as,  after  all,  he  is  only  human  and 
is  liable  to  contract  the  same  disease  and  carry  it  to  his  family  or  some 
other  patient,  all  of  which  go  to  make  up  the  perils  of  a  doctor's  life. 


V 
WORDS   AND   PHRASES 


CHAPTER  XX 
GOOD   USE 

"  Language,"  says  Dr.  Campbell  in  his  "  Philosophy  of 
Rhetoric,"  "is  purely  a  species  of  fashion,  in  which,  by 
the  general  but  tacit  consent  of  the  people  of  a  particular 
state  or  country,  certain  sounds  come  to  be  appropriated 
to  certain  things  as  their  signs,  and  certain  ways  of  inflect- 
ing and  combining  these  sounds  come  to  be  established  as 
denoting  the  relations  which  subsist  among  the  things  sig- 
nified. It  is  not  the  business  of  grammar  to  give  law  to 
the  fashions  which  regulate  our  speech.  On  the  contrary, 
from  its  conformity  to  these,  and  from  that  alone,  it  derives 
all  its  authority  and  value.  ...  To  the  tribunal  of  use, 
as  to  the  supreme  authority,  we  are  entitled  to  appeal  from 
the  laws  and  decisions  of  grammarians."  1 

Good  Use  governs  not  only  the  forms  of  words  and  the 
ways  in  which  they  may  be  combined  into  sentences,  but 
also  the  selection  of  words  which  one  may  use  with  pro- 
priety. Certain  requirements  of  grammar,  or  rules  of 
Good  Use  in  the  sentence,  have  already  been  set  forth  in 
the  chapter  on  "Correctness."  Good  Use,  as  it  applies 
to  individual  words  and  phrases,  has  for  more  than  a 
century  been  discussed  under  three  heads,  —  reputable, 
national,  and  present  use.2  These  technical  terms  need 
some  explanation. 

1  See  page  10. 

2  The  next  three  paragraphs  contain,  in  an  abridged  form,  Dr.  Campbell's  ex- 

287 


288  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

Good  Use  implies  not  only  currency,  but  reputable 
custom.  "Among  the  populace  many  words  and  idioms 
prevail  which,  notwithstanding  a  use  pretty  uniform  and 
extensive,  are  considered  as  corrupt,  and  which,  like 
counterfeit  money,  though  common,  are  not  valued.  This 
is  particularly  the  case  with  those  terms  and  phrases  which 
critics  have  denominated  vulgarisms.  Their  use  is  not 
reputable.  From  the  practice  of  those  who  are  conversant 
in  any  art,  we  always  take  the  sense  of  the  terms  belong- 
ing to  that  art.  In  like  manner,  from  the  practice  of  those 
who  have  had  a  liberal  education,  we  judge  of  the  general 
use  in  language.  In  what  concerns  the  words  themselves, 
their  construction  and  application,  it  is  of  importance  to 
have  some  certain,  steady,  and  well-known  standard  to 
recur  to,  a  standard  which  every  one  has  access  to  can- 
vass and  examine.  This  can  be  no  other  than  authors  of 
reputation.  Accordingly,  we  find  that  these  are,  by  uni- 
versal consent,  in  actual  possession  of  this  authority.  To 
this  tribunal,  when  any  doubt  arises,  the  appeal  is  always 
made."  Under  Good  Use  "  we  must  understand  to  be 
comprehended  whatever  modes  of  speech  are  authorized 
as  good  by  the  writings  of  a  great  number,  if  not  the 
majority,  of  celebrated  authors." 

"  Another  qualification  of  the  term  use  which  deserves 
our  attention  is  that  it  should  be  national."  National  use 
stands  opposed  to  provincial,  professional,  and  foreign  use. 
A  provincialism  is  a  term  that  passes  current  only  in  some 
particular  district  or  locality.   The  same  reasons  which  for- 

position  of  Good  Use  as  set  forth  in  his  "  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric."  Dr.  Campbell's 
analysis  and  discussion  of  Good  Use  are  so  excellent  that  nearly  all  subsequent 
writers  who  have  treated  this  subject  have  been  constrained  to  accept  his  conclu- 
sions. Where  his  exact  words  have  been  given,  marks  of  quotation  have  been 
used,  even  though  much  is  omitted,  and  though  the  passages  quoted  are  not 
continuous. 


GOOD   USE  289 

bid  the  use  of  provincial  dialects  "  may  be  applied  to  profes- 
sional dialects,  or  the  cant  which  is  sometimes  observed  to 
prevail  among  those  of  the  same  profession  or  way  of  life. 
The  currency  of  the  latter  cannot  be  so  exactly  circum- 
scribed as  that  of  the  former ;  but  their  use  is  not  on  that 
account  either  more  extensive  or  more  reputable.  National 
use  may  also  be  opposed  to  foreign.  The  introduction  of 
extraneous  words  and  idioms  from  other  languages  and 
foreign  nations  cannot  be  a  smaller  transgression  against 
the  established  custom  of  the  English  tongue  than  the 
introduction  of  words  and  idioms  "  peculiar  to  some  particu- 
lar locality.  "  The  only  difference  between  them  is  that 
one  is  more  commonly  the  error  of  the  learned,  the  other 
of  the  vulgar.  Thus  two  essential  qualities  of  usage  in 
regard  to  language  have  been  settled,  —  that  it  be  both 
reputable  and  national." 

There  will  naturally  arise  here  another  question :  Is  not 
reputable  and  national  use  in  the  same  country  different  at 
different  periods  ?  "  If  so,  to  the  usage  of  what  period 
shall  we  attach  ourselves  as  the  proper  rule  ? "  In  other 
words,  it  may  be  asked,  In  what  sense  are  we  to  under- 
stand the  term  present  use ?  "How  far  may  we  safely 
range  in  quest  of  authorities  ?  At  what  distance  backward 
from  this  moment  are  authors  still  to  be  accounted  as 
possessing  a  legislative  voice  in  language  ?  "  To  these 
questions  "it  is  difficult  to  give  an  answer  with  all  the 
precision  that  might  be  desired.  When  the  word  present 
is  used  of  language,  its  proper  contrary  is  not  ancient  but 
obsolete."  It  is  best  for  a  writer  to  consider  those  words 
and  idioms  as  obsolete  which  have  been  disused  by  all  good 
authors.  "  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  said,  Are  we  to 
catch  at  every  new-fashioned  term  and  phrase  which  whim 
or  affectation  may  invent,  or  folly  circulate  ?    Can  this  ever 


290  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

tend  to  give  dignity  to  our  style,  or  permanence  to  our 
language  ?  Surely  it  cannot.  If  we  recur  to  the  standard 
already  assigned  —  namely,  the  writings  of  a  plurality  of 
celebrated  authors  —  there  will  be  no  scope  for  the  com- 
prehension of  words  and  idioms  which  can  be  denominated 
novel  and  upstart.  It  must  be  owned  that  we  often  meet 
with  such  terms  and  phrases.  They  obtrude  themselves 
upon  us  from  every  quarter,  in  all  the  daily  papers,  letters, 
addresses,  etc.  Such  words  and  phrases  are,  at  the  most, 
but  the  insects  of  a  season.  The  people,  always  fickle,  are 
just  as  prompt  to  drop  them  as  they  were  to  take  them  up. 
Not  one  in  a  hundred  survives  the  particular  occasion  or 
party-struggle  that  gave  it  birth." 

Good  Use,  then,  is  determined  by  a  threefold  standard : 
a  word  or  an  idiom  is  considered  to  be  in  good  use  when 
it  has  received  the  sanction  of  the  best  writers ;  when  it 
is  generally  acceptable  and  intelligible  throughout  the 
country;  and  when  it  is  used  by  the  best  writers  of  the 
present  day.  Reputable,  national,  and  present  are,  as  Dr. 
Campbell  says,  the  essential  attributes  of  "  that  use  which 
is  the  sole  mistress  of  language." 

From  this  brief  discussion  it  is  clear  that  Good  Use 
changes  from  time  to  time.  In  Chaucer  and  in  Shake- 
speare and  in  Milton  are  found  many  words  and  turns 
of  expression  that  are  now  obsolete.  The  English  that 
was  written  a  thousand  years  ago,  in  the  time  of  King 
Alfred,  can  hardly  be  recognized  by  the  ordinary  reader  as 
the  language  that  he  speaks  and  writes  to-day.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  best  writers  of  the  present  time  employ 
many  words  that  would  have  been  unintelligible  only  a 
generation  ago.  Great  changes  in  the  life  and  civilization 
of  a  people  usually  affect  the  language.  With  the  disap- 
pearance of  the  feudal  system,  for  instance,  many  words 


GOOD   USE  291 

that  had  long  been  in  common  use  ceased  to  live.  Again, 
some  new  invention,  which,  like  that  of  the  steam-engine, 
has  a  far-reaching  effect  upon  human  life  and  progress,  is 
likely  to  usher  in  a  throng  of  new  words.  Thus  many  old 
words  disappear  because  they  are  no  longer  needed,  and 
many  new  words  come  into  use  because  they  are  needed 
as  the  symbols  of  new  ideas.  Often,  however,  words  come 
and  go  at  the  whim  of  inexplicable  fashion.  Growth  and 
change  mark  the  history  of  every  living  language.  Only 
a  dead  language  can  stand  still.1 

The  violations  of  Good  Use  are  commonly  divided  into 
three  classes, — solecisms,  barbarisms \  and  improprieties. 
A  solecism  is  a  construction  that  violates  some  rule  of 
grammar.  The  commonest  solecisms  have  already  been 
pointed  out  in  the  chapter  on  "Correctness."  A  barba- 
rism is  a  word  that  is  not  in  reputable,  national,  or  present 
use.  An  impropriety  is  a  word  that  is  used  in  a  sense  not 
authorized  by  Good  Use.  Among  the  common  classes  of 
barbarisms  and  improprieties  may  be  noted  the  follow- 
ing:— 

1.  There  are  a  large  number  of  common  vulgarisms 
which  writers  of  good  sense  and  good  taste  will  instinc- 
tively avoid.  The  use  of  such  words  as  the  following  is 
an  indication  of  vulgarity  or  ignorance  :  — 


chaw 

nigger 

complected 

cuss 

overly 

flustrated 

dern 

ain't 

disremember 

grub 

gab 

hadn't  ought 

2.  Another  class  of  words  not  in  reputable  use  comes 
from  that  "vagabond  language"  called  slang.  "Slang  is 
seldom  controlled  by  any  regard  for  propriety,  and  it  bids 

l  See  page  20. 


292  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

deliberate  defiance  to  all  considerations  of  good  taste." 
The  writer  who  has  any  regard  for  the  purity  of  his  diction 
and  the  integrity  of  his  vocabulary  will  avoid  such  expres- 
sions as  the  following  :  — 


cinch 

rubber-neck 

bug-house 

grind 

spondulix 

snide 

all-fired 

in  cahoot 

savvy 

bang-up 

out-of-sight 

nit 

corker 

soft  snap 

pal 

swipe 

knocker 

on  a  toot 

3.  A  careful  writer  will  avoid  provincialisms  because 
they  are  not  in  national  and  reputable  use.  Therefore 
they  are  not  generally  intelligible.  It  is  worth  one's  while 
to  keep  his  speech  and  writing  free  from  all  dialect  forms. 
Some  localisms  are  improprieties ;  others  are  barbarisms. 
The  following  terms,  each  of  which  is  peculiar  to  some 
particular  locality  or  district,  are  not  in  good  use  :  — 

dumb  (stupid)  clever  (good-natured) 

gums  (overshoes)  puny  (sickly) 

tote  (carry)  reckon  (suppose) 

sun-up  (sunrise)  a  poke  (a  paper  bag) 

favor  (resemble)  a  dornick  (a  stone) 

a  banquette  (a  balcony)  smart  (clever) 

a  spider  (a  frying-pan)  a  slice  (a  fire-shovel) 

an  infare  (a  wedding  reception) 

near  (stingy) 

a  rig  (a  horse  and  carriage) 

jerkwater  (applied  to  a  railroad) 

a  bulkhead  (an  outside  cellar  door) 

a  maverick  (anything  obtained  dishonestly) 

4.  In  ordinary  composition  technical  words  are  to  be 
avoided  because,  like  provincialisms,  they  are  not  gener- 
ally intelligible.  The  use  of  a  particular  group  of  technical 
terms  is  ordinarily  confined  to  a  small  class  of  specialists. 


GOOD   USE 


293 


A  professional  dialect  is  no  more  in  national  use  than  is 
a  provincial  dialect.  In  ordinary  speech  and  in  general 
literature  technical  words  have  no  meaning.  To  the  aver- 
age man  the  following  terms  are  no  more  intelligible 
than  so  many  words  taken  from  some  unknown  foreign 
language :  — 

septicaemia  inductance  bucholzite 

rubeola  caponiere  epicenter 

polyphase  multipolar  kilowatt 

colloidal  quadrigeminal  quoins 

petrography  stereotomy  schizopoda 

5.  Some  silly  writers  who  know  a  little  Latin  or  a  little 
French  are  fond  of  displaying  their  verbal  finery.  They 
seem  to  think  that  the  use  of  foreign  words  is  a  mark  of 
distinction.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  a  sure  sign  of  vanity 
and  affectation.  It  is  only  after  foreign  words  have  been 
naturalized  that  they  are  in  good  use  as  a  part  of  the 
language.  Such  naturalization  occurs  whenever  a  foreign 
word  fills  a  real  need.  So  long  as  a  given  idea  can  be 
fully  and  clearly  expressed  by  a  native  word,  any  foreign 
substitute  is  very  properly  looked  upon  as  an  alien  and 
an  interloper.  The  following  words  and  phrases  violate 
national  use :  — 


alter  ego 

entre  nous 

affaire  du  coeur 

per  se 

nouveau  riche 

artiste 

chic 

mal  de  mer 

faux  pas 

svelte 

coup  de  soleil 

ab  initio 

abattoir 

ne  plus  ultra 

distingue" 

6.  Some  writers  have  a  special  fondness  for  archaic 
words.  Obsolete  and  obsolescent  words  violate  present 
use.  There  are  certain  archaic  words  and  forms  which 
are  proper  to  poetic  diction,  but  which  are  not  commonly 


294 


COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 


used  in  prose.     In  ordinary  composition  such  words  as  the 
following  should  be  avoided  :  — 

yclept 
'neath 
'midst 

mayhap 

yea 

ere 

spake 

yore 

eld 

e'er 

withal 

afeard 

shoon 
kine 
wight 
quoth 

albeit 
hight 
prithee 
'twixt 

otherwhiles 

whit 

wot 

peradventure 

7.  Every  one  is  familiar  with  numerous  abbreviations 
which  are  little  better  than  slang.  The  following  abbrevi- 
ated forms  are  common  violations  of  reputable  and  present 
use :  — 


pants  (pantaloons) 
gents  (gentlemen) 
photo  (photograph) 
'phone  (telephone) 
cute  (acute) 
typo  (typographer) 
pard  (partner) 
doc  (doctor) 
prof  (professor) 
cap  (captain) 
bike  (bicycle) 


rep  (reputation) 
exam  (examination) 
ad  (advertisement) 
auto  (automobile) 
'fess  (confess) 
spec  (speculation) 
confab  (confabulation) 
incog  {incognito) 
zoo  (zoological  garden) 
phiz  (physiognomy) 
biz  (business) 


Sometimes  an  abbreviated  form  wins  its  way  into  good 
use.  Van  (from  avant),  cab  (from  cabriolet),  and  hack 
(from  hackney-coach)  are  now  good  English  words. 

8.  The  newspapers  are  the  common  purveyors  of  nezv 
words.  Occasionally  words  thus  introduced  or  exploited 
are,  after  a  while,  admitted  into  good  use ;  canard,  gerry- 
mander, and  boycott  are  familiar  examples.  Usually,  how- 
ever, the  hasty  inventions  of  the  reporter  are,  especially  to 
the  man  who  reads  nothing  but  the  newspapers,  among 
the  most  insidious  barbarisms :  — 


GOOD   USE 

refereed 

faddist 

getable 

suicided 

a  try 

fake 

outclassed 

a  tough 

railroaded 

derailment 

a  combine 

connection 

burglarized 

an  exposd 

second-handed 

managerial 

an  invite 

enthuse 

295 


9.  Improprieties  are  "words  used  in  a  sense  not  English." 
A  few  occur  in  the  foregoing  lists.  The  origin  of  many 
improprieties  can  be  traced  to  some  similarity  of  form,  or 
of  sound,  or  of  sense.  Because  of  such  resemblance,  words 
and  their  meanings  become  confused.  As  a  result,  one 
word  may  be  incorrectly  used  for  another,  or  a  word  may 
be  used  in  a  sense  somewhat  similar  to  its  correct  meaning. 
The  following  are  good  English  words  which  are  often  used 
in  a  sense  not  authorized  by  Good  Use :  — 


accept  (for  except) 
affect  (for  effect) 
aggravate  (for  vex  or  annoy) 
allude  (for  refer) 
alone  (for  only) 
among  (for  between) 
anxious  (for  eager) 
avocation  (for  vocation) 
balance  (for  remainder) 
between  (for  among) 
claim  (for  maintain) 
continual  (for  continuous) 
demean  (for  debase) 
eliminate  (for  derive) 
enormity  (for  enormousness) 
factor  (for  part) 
fix  (for  mend  or  repair) 
funny  (for  odd  or  unusual) 


gentleman  (for  man) 
healthy  (for  healthful) 
individual  (for  person) 
lady  (for  woman) 
learn  (for  teach) 
leave  (for  let) 
liable  (for  likely) 
limited  (for  small) 
locate  (for  settle) 

lots    (for   large    number   or   abun- 
dance) 
mad  (for  vexed  or  angry) 
most  (for  almost) 
observation  (for  observance) 
partake  (for  eat) 
party  (for  person) 
quite  (for  rather,  somewhat,  etc.) 
transpire  (for  happen) 


Good  Use  applies  not  only  to  individual  words,  but  also 
to  those  phrases  or  combinations  of  words  which  are  com- 


296  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

monly  called  idioms.  An  idiom  is  a  mode  of  expression 
peculiar  to  the  language.  It  cannot  be  translated,  word 
for  word,  into  another  tongue.  Idioms  are  irregularities 
of  language  that  often  defy  both  grammar  and  logic.  If 
the  grammarian  deigns  to  notice  them  at  all,  he  is  disposed 
to  regard  them  as  exceptional  and  abnormal.  Yet,  when 
they  have  once  been  approved  by  Good  Use,  they  become 
legitimate  modes  of  expression,  and  can  no  more  be  ques- 
tioned than  those  forms  of  speech  which  follow  the  strict- 
est grammatical  laws.  Idioms,  like  the  rules  of  grammar, 
receive  their  only  sanction  from  Good  Use,  which  is  the 
highest  law  of  the  language. 

The  study  of  a  few  idioms,  taken  almost  at  random,  will 
be  sufficient  to  show  the  peculiar  character  as  well  as  the 
strength  and  value  of  these  native  irregularities  of  our 
language :  — 

1.  He  is  not  to  blame  for  this. 

2.  I  had  rather  go  myself. 

3.  Speak  louder.     Speak  plain. 

4.  I  spent  the  evening  with  a  few  friends. 

5.  Every  now  and  then.     Every  here  and  there. 

6.  More  than  one  man  mourns  his  death. 

7.  A  friend  of  mine. 

8.  A  ten-foot  pole.     An  eight-acre  field. 

9.  Hold  on!  {i.e.,  Stop!  or,  Wait!) 

10.  We  could  not  make  out  the  inscription. 

1 1 .  Lend  me  a  hand. 

12.  I  cannot  help  praising  him. 

13.  There  is  the  man  I  was  talking  to. 

14.  With  might  and  main.     Without  let  or  hindrance. 

15.  In  this  plan  he  at  last  acquiesced. 

With  such  idiomatic  expressions  as  these  we  have  all 
become  so  familiar  that  we  no  longer  think  of  them  as  be- 
ing in  any  way  anomalous.     Yet  each  of  these  examples 


GOOD   USE  297 

shows  some  irregularity  or  peculiarity.  In  the  first  ex- 
ample the  active  form  of  blame  is  used  for  the  passive. 
The  meaning  of  this  sentence,  of  course,  is,  "  He  is  not 
to  be  blamed  f or  this."  In  the  second  example  grammar 
finds  it  no  easy  matter  to  justify  the  combination  had  go. 
The  third  example  illustrates  the  idiomatic  use  of  the  so- 
called  "flat  adverb."  "The  man  who  writes  'speak  loudly,' 
'speak  more  loudly,'  'speak  plainly,'  'walk  fastly,'  'drink 
deeply,'  '  speak  lowly," the  moon  shines  brightly,'  'the  sun 
shines  hotly,'  may  have  the  applause  of  grammarians  and 
his  own  misguided  conscience,  but  he  is  not  writing  idio- 
matic English.  His  virtue  must  be  its  own  reward,  since 
he  can  never  win  the  approval  of  lovers  of  sound,  whole- 
some, living  English.  Those  who  use  the  language  idio- 
matically write  'speak  loud,'  'speak  louder,'  'speak  plain,' 
'walk  fast,'  'drink  deep,'  'speak  low,'  'the  moon  shines 
bright,'  and  'the  sun  shines  hot.'  Yet  these  idiomatic 
distinctions  are  often  very  delicate.  An  adverb  is  some- 
times used  in  its  flat  form  with  an  imperative  when  in 
other  cases  the  form  in  ly  is  proper.  We  say,  for  instance, 
'  walk  slow,  walk  slower ' ;  but  '  He  walked  slowly  across 
the  field  and  more  slowly  over  the  bridge.'  Nothing  but 
the  careful  training  of  the  perceptions  avails  for  distinctions 
such  as  these."  l  Again,  in  the  fourth  example,  how  can 
the  grammarian  justify  the  use  of  the  singular  article  a 
with  the  plural  expression  "few  friends"?  In  the  fifth, 
why  should  we  be  allowed  to  use  the  adjective  every  as  a 
modifier  of  the  adverbs  now  and  then,  here  and  there  f  In 
the  sixth  example,  idiom,  in  open  defiance  of  grammar, 
permits  us  to  say,  "  More  [men]  than  one  man  mourns  his 
death."  In  the  seventh  example  we  have  a  double  geni- 
tive in  "a   friend   of  mine."     In   the   eighth  "a  ten-foot 

1  Arlo  Bates's  "  Talks  on  Writing  English,"  page  50. 


298  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

pole  "  seems  to  be  a  violation  of  one  of  the  commonest 
rules  of  grammar.  In  the  next  four  examples  such  ex- 
pressions as  "  hold  on,"  "make  out,"  "lend  a  hand,"  "can- 
not help  praising,"  do  not  literally  mean  the  same  thing 
that  they  mean  idiomatically.  In  the  thirteenth  example 
the  omission  of  the  relative  pronoun  and  the  position  of 
the  preposition  at  the  end  of  the  relative  clause  are  both 
idiomatic  usages.  Since,  in  the  fourteenth  example,  there 
is  no  difference  in  meaning  between  might  and  main,  and 
between  let  and  hindrance,  why  should  the  use  of  both  be 
tolerated?  Such  tautology  has  its  only  justification  in  idio- 
matic use.  In  the  fifteenth  example,  why  is  it  proper  to 
say  "  acquiesced  in  this  plan  "  instead  of  "  to  this  plan  "  ? 
The  only  answer  is  that  idiom  has  prescribed  that  the 
preposition  in  shall  be  used  with  this  verb. 

This  last  example  illustrates  one  of  the  commonest  forms 
of  idiom  in  our  language.  Good  Use  requires  that  special 
prepositions  shall  be  used  with  certain  words.  The  aver- 
age student  has  considerable  difficulty  in  mastering  the 
idiomatic  use  of  prepositions.  In  this  part  of  his  study,  as 
in  all  other  matters  pertaining  to  Good  Use,  the  habit  of 
close  observation  is  invaluable.  The  following  list1  shows 
the  special  prepositions  which  usually  accompany  certain 
words :  — 

abhorrence  of  agree  with  (a  person) 

absolve  from  agree  to  (a  proposal) 

accord  with  averse  from  or  to 

acquit  of  bestow  upon 

adapted  to  or  for  change  for  (a  thing) 

affinity  between,  to,  or  with  change  with  (a  person) 

1  A.  S.  Hill's  "  Foundations  of  Rhetoric,"  page  148.  "  Most  of  the  words  in 
this  list,"  says  Professor  Hill,  "  are  taken  from  Professor  Meiklejohn's  'The  Eng- 
lish Language.'    A  few  have  been  added  and  some  changes  have  been  made." 


GOOD  USE  299 

comply  with  disappointed  of  (what  we  cannot 

confer  on  {i.e.,  give  to)  get) 

confer  with  {i.e.,  talk  with)  disappointed  in  (what  we  have) 

confide  in  {i.e.,  trust  in)  dissent  from 

confide  to  {i.e.,  intrust  to)  glad  at  or  of 

in  conformity  with  or  to  involve  in 

convenient  for  or  to  martyr  for  or  to 

conversant  with  need  of 

correspond  to  or  with  (a  thing)  part  from  or  with 

correspond  with  (a  person)  profit  by 

dependent  on  (but  independent  of)    reconcile  to  or  with 

derogatory  to  taste  of  (food) 

differ  from  (a  person  or  thing)  taste  for  (art) 

differ  from  or  with  (in  opinion)  thirst  for  or  after 


To  the  writer  a  knowledge  of  English  idiom  is  just  as 
important  as  a  knowledge  of  English  grammar.  The  man 
who  would  write  good  and  vigorous  English  must,  at  all 
hazards,  obey  the  idiom  of  the  language.  It  is  only  the 
grammarian  and  the  pedant  who  are  afraid  of  an  idiom 
because  it  cannot  be  parsed  or  explained.  The  homely 
speech  of  plain  people  and  the  works  of  our  best  writers 
abound  in  idioms.  Their  use  is  commendable  because 
they  serve  to  give  vigor  and  variety  and  individuality  to 
the  language.  A  mastery  of  these  native  peculiarities  of 
a  language  is  all  the  more  difficult  to  obtain  because  they 
do  not  follow  any  rules  or  generalizations.  Every  idiom 
is,  in  fact,  a  law  unto  itself.  Yet  it  is  a  law  which  must 
not  be  transgressed.  The  Writer  must  master  the  irregu- 
larities as  well  as  the  grammar  of  his  native  tongue. 

The  worst  and  most  frequent  violations  of  English  idiom 
occur  in  what  has  come  to  be  known  as  "  translation-Eng- 
lish." It  has  already  been  remarked  that  an  idiom  cannot 
be  literally  translated  from  one  language  into  another.  Yet 
students,  in  their  class-room  translations  from  the  ancient 


300  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

and  the  modern  languages,  usually  seem  to  be  more  desirous 
of  translating  with  slavish  literalness  than  of  reproducing 
the  thought  in  good,  idiomatic  English.  Many  a  student, 
in  his  misguided  effort  to  translate  literally,  often  attempts 
to  transfer  bodily  into  the  English  language  some  idiomatic 
turn  of  expression  peculiar  to  the  Latin  or  the  French  or 
the  German  tongue,  some  grammatical  construction  or 
order  of  words  utterly  foreign  to  our  language.  The  two 
sentences  which  follow  illustrate  what  is  meant  by  "trans- 
lation-English "  :  — 

i.  Once  wrote  the  imprisoned  one  something  on  a  silver  plate,  and 
cast  the  plate  out  at  the  window  toward  a  boat  which  at  the  bank  lay, 
close  at  the  foot  of  the  tower. 

2.  He,  Marcus  Messala  and  Marcus  Piso  being  the  consuls,  having 
been  induced  by  a  desire  of  the  reigning  power,  made  a  conspiracy  of 
the  nobility,  and  persuaded  the  state  that  they  should  from  their  own 
boundaries  with  all  their  forces  depart;  it  was  very  easy,  since  they 
excelled  them  all  as  to  valor,  to  secure  the  government  of  all  Gaul. 

The  habit  of  producing  translations  like  these  destroys  the 
student's  command  of  English  idiom.  The  harmful  effects 
of  such  a  practice  cannot  be  overestimated.  The  use  of 
foreign  idioms  is  even  worse  than  the  use  of  foreign  words ; 
for  the  introduction  of  foreign  idioms  destroys  the  integrity 
and  the  individuality  of  the  language.  The  student  who 
would  translate  from  a  foreign  language  without  violation 
of  English  idiom  should  follow  this  simple  rule :  A  foreign 
idiom  should  be  translated  by  the  corresponding  English 
idiom;  a  foreign  construction  should  be  rendered  by  an 
English  construction  ;  and  a  foreign  arrangement  of  words 
in  the  sentence  should  give  place  to  the  English  order.  This 
simple  prescription  is  the  best  cure  for  the  evil  known  as 
"translation-English."  Each  language  has  its  own  char- 
acteristic peculiarities;  and  in  our  translations  from  one 


GOOD  USE  301 

language  to  another  these  native  peculiarities  should  be 
respected. 

Two  important  questions,  which  are  of  practical  concern 
to  the  student,  are  suggested  by  this  brief  discussion  of 
Good  Use:  (1)  How  can  I  obtain  a  serviceable  vocabulary 
of  reputable  words  and  a  mastery  of  English  idiom  ? 
(2)  How  can  I  settle  doubtful  matters  of  idiom  and  diction  ? 
In  Chapter  XXII,  entitled  "  How  One  may  Improve  his 
Vocabulary,"  an  effort  has  been  made  to  answer  the  first 
of  these  questions.  In  answer  to  the  second  question  the 
best  advice  that  can  be  given  is  :  Consult  a  good  unabridged 
dictionary.  Although  the  dictionary  records  all  words  that 
have  at  any  time  attained  any  currency,  it  usually  takes 
pains  to  mark  those  which  are  not  in  present,  reputable,  or 
national  use.  The  larger  dictionaries  also  give  the  more 
common  idiomatic  turns  of  expression.  In  the  case  of 
particular  words  and  phrases  the  dictionary  will  usually 
suffice  to  settle  questions  of  propriety.1  To  obtain  a  com- 
prehensive knowledge  of  Good  Use  and  of  English  idiom, 
however,  one  is  obliged  to  keep  good  company  and  to  read 
the  best  books.  "  The  cultivation  of  correctness,  the  con- 
scious refining  of  speech,"  it  has  been  well  said,  "  progresses 
not  more  by  consultation  of  dictionaries  than  by  living 
studiously  with  pure  speech  and  pure  writing." 

To  sum  up,  then,  Good  Use  is  determined  by  reputable, 
national,  and  present  use.  A  word  or  an  expression  is  in  good 
use  when  reputable  writers  of  the  present  day  have  used  it 
and  have  given  it  national  currency.  Good  Use  frowns  upon 
vulgarisms,  slang,  provincialisms,  technical  terms,  foreign 
expressions,  archaic  words,  improper  abbreviations,  new 
words  not  yet  in  reputable  use,  —  in  short,  upon  all  kinds 

1  In  Appendix  D  about  two  hundred  of  the  commonest  violations  of  Good  Use 
are  pointed  out. 


302  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

of  barbarisms  and  improprieties.  Good  Use  applies  not 
only  to  individual  words,  but  also  to  those  native  peculiari- 
ties of  a  language  which  are  called  idioms.  In  the  realm 
of  idiom  Good  Use  reigns  supreme ;  it  even  takes  prece- 
dence of  grammatical  rules  and  logical  consistency.  A 
thorough  knowledge  of  English  idiom  is  of  the  highest 
value  to  every  writer.  The  student  should  take  pains  to 
avoid  the  frequent  violations  of  idiom  which  are  likely  to 
find  their  way  into  his  translations  from  a  foreign  tongue. 
Finally,  he  should  strive  to  acquire  a  serviceable  vocabu- 
lary of  reputable  words  and  a  mastery  of  English  idiom ; 
and  he  should  seek  to  settle  for  himself,  as  they  arise,  all 
doubtful  questions  of  idiom  and  diction. 

EXERCISES 

1.  From  the  work  of  some  standard  German,  French,  Greek,  or  Latin 
author  which  you  have  read,  carefully  select  a  continuous  passage  con- 
taining five  hundred  words  or  more,  and  translate  it  into  good,  idiomatic 
English. 

II.  Read  over  the  list  of  common  improprieties  and  barbarisms 
pointed  out  in  Appendix  D,  and  carefully  note  any  mistakes  which  you 
have  been  in  the  habit  of  making.  Check  off  these  errors,  and  in  order 
that  you  may  guard  against  them  in  the  future,  read  frequently  over  the 
list  of  words  that  you  have  marked. 

III.  In  the  following  sentences,  point  out  and  correct  any  violations 
of  Good  Use  or  of  English  idiom  :  — 

i.  After  the  chapel  service  I  go  to  my  room  and  grind  my  algebra 
for  an  hour  or  more. 

2.  Several  of  my  friends  informed  me  that  the  course  was  a  cinch. 

3.  No  one  can  help  but  be  impressed  by  the  simplicity  of  every 
thing  around  Mount  Vernon. 

4.  Everything  was  alright,  and  the  raft  ran  smoothly  for  the  firs 
few  rods. 

5.  Every  afternoon  our  crowd  of  fellows  would  meet  at  the  Open 
House. 


GOOD   USE  303 

6.  During  these  four  weeks  special  care  should  be  taken  of  the 
eggs  so  as  not  to  leave  them  get  cold. 

7.  My  father,  my  mother,  and  myself  lived  at  the  end  of  the  bridge 
that  spanned  Codorus  Creek. 

8.  To  the  spectator  the  sight  produces  both  wonder  and  admiration. 

9.  Apples  were  so  plenty  that  year  that  it  hardly  paid  to  pick  them. 

10.  These  were  hidden  some  place  in  the  different  rooms. 

1 1 .  One  morning  after  my  arrival  a  neighbor  gave  the  old  folks  a 
call. 

12.  Thus  his  labor  will  not  benefit  him  any. 

13.  After  a  little  persuasion  he  came  down  off  of  the  platform. 

14.  As  soon  as  the  pistol  cracks,  the  men  start  running  as  fast  as 
they  can. 

15.  Young  men  are  done  good  by  being  obliged  to  attend  the  chapel 
service. 

16.  The  wages  paid  in  these  shops  are  such  that  enable  the  work- 
men to  live  in  good  houses  and  have  all  the  necessities  of  life. 

17.  With  their  guns  the  men  kept  them  far  enough  away  that  they 
could  not  set  fire  to  the  fort. 

18.  He  first  takes  the  hunk  of  rubber  and  whittles  it  until  it  is  round 
like  a  marble. 

19.  She  persisted  on  venturing  on  the  thin  ice  near  the  water. 

20.  In  this  school  I  studied  nearly  all  of  the  subjects  required  to 
enter  college. 

21.  After  a  little  practice  I  found  myself  able  to  cook  ordinary  camp 
grub. 

22.  I  decided  that  epigraphy  was  a  very  different  subject  than  I  had 
at  first  supposed. 

23.  I  first  talked  the  matter  over  with  my  father,  who  advised  me  to 
except  the  position. 

24.  A  hurried  examination  was  enough  to  show  that  one  of  the 
water-pipes  had  bursted. 

25.  I  always  enjoyed  to  use  tools  and  to  busy  myself  making  different 
articles  of  wood  and  iron. 

26.  I  had  planned  to  take,  on  the  following  June,  the  examinations 
in  mathematics  and  English,  and  to  try  and  take  the  balance  of  the 
entrance  examinations  in  September. 

27.  Then  the  men  took  the  wagon  further  in  the  woods  and  soon 
begun  loading  on  logs. 


304  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

28.  The  surgeon  soon  found  that  more  than  half  the  soldiers  in  the 
camp  were  effected  by  this  disorder. 

29.  He  made  on  attempt  in  ridding  himself  of  peculiarities. 

30.  Here  we  met  a  dark -complected,  Spanish-looking  gentleman. 

31.  The  nearby  farmers,  who  left  us  take  all  the  fruit  we  wanted, 
proved  very  clever  neighbors. 

32.  With  this  plan  all  of  them  readily  acquiesced. 

33.  A  fellow  who  spends  his  spare  time  in  reading  is  liable  to  be 
well  posted  in  all  matters  of  general  information. 

34.  The  flowers  of  the  red  sage  are  a  bright  red  and  very  showy. 

35.  I  agreed  on  working  for  one  dollar  per  day  until  I  had  learned  the 
business. 

36.  This  course  would  be  improved,  I  think,  if  French  or  German 
were  substituted  in  place  of  Latin. 

37.  We  started  hunting  about  an  hour  before  sun-up. 

38.  These  orations  gave  me  some  experience  to  speak  before  an 
audience. 

39.  When  I  told  Mr.  Barrows  of  this  family,  he  said  he  expected 
they  must  somehow  be  related  to  him. 

40.  The  eight  or  nine  fellows  in  our  crowd  were  very  much  enthused 
over  our  prospect  of  winning  this  game. 

41.  Those  funny  old  farmers  in  the  Kishacoquillas  valley  are  not  as 
dumb  as  they  look. 

42.  The  mother  was  proud  of  her  little  boy's  cute  sayings. 

43.  Something  about  our  get-up  seemed  to  surprise  most  everybody 
we  met. 

44.  The  City  Council  took  a  great  interest  to  keep  the  water-works 
in  splendid  shape. 

45.  As  the  last  car  came  along,  I  attempted  and  was  successful  in 
boarding  it. 

46.  We  rarely  ever  walked  to  the  "  Willows,"  though  the  distance 
was  not  overly  far.     On  this  occasion  our  party  hired  a  three-seated  rig. 

47.  Every  year  I  learned  some  new  ways  to  make  camp  life  a  pleasure. 

48.  I  inserted  an  ad.  in  the  local  newspaper,  and,  as  a  result,  I  soon 
had  a  ready  sale  for  three  or  four  dozen  photos  every  week. 

49.  There  are  a  lot  of  young  chaps  nowadays  who  are  afraid  that 
they  will  be  demeaning  theirselves  by  doing  any  kind  of  manual  labor. 

50.  Last  evening  the  freshmen  met  back  of  the  Armory  with  the 
purpose  of  bringing  a  barrel  of  cider  on  the  Campus. 


GOOD   USE  305 

51.  If  you  should  travel  through  a  farming  region  in  September,  you 
should  likely  pass  some  barn  where  a  threshing-machine  is  at  work. 

52.  Here  everything  seemed  to  be  so  quiet  and  lonely. 

53.  One  of  the  passengers,  a  chic  theatrical  artiste,  suffered  horribly 
from  an  attack  of  mat  de  mer. 

54.  The  reservoir  is  sixty  feet  long,  fifty  feet  wide,  and  six  feet  deep, 
and  with  this-sized  basin  C is  well  supplied  with  water. 

55.  In  a  subdivision  of  my  work  it  is  permitted  to  me  to  say  before- 
hand what  several  writers  of  history  have  stated  at  the  beginning  of 
their  whole  connected  treatise,  that  I  am  going  to  write  about  a  war 
the  most  memorable  of  all  which  have  ever  been  carried  on,  that  the 
Carthaginians,  Hannibal  being  their  general,  waged  with  the  Roman 
people. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
THE   CHOICE   OF  WORDS 

Within  the  limits  set  by  Good  Use,  what  principle 
should  one  follow  in  the  choice  of  words  ?  Young  writers  are 
frequently  told  that  short  words  are  better  than  long  ones, 
and  that  words  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin  are  to  be  preferred 
to  those  of  Latin  derivation.  This  familiar  advice,  it  is  to 
be  feared,  often  mystifies  the  student  quite  as  much  as  it 
helps  him ;  and  it  is  worth  while  to  inquire  what  rational 
basis  can  be  found  for  this  frequently  quoted  general  rule. 

The  English  language  is  composed  partly  of  native  and 
partly  of  foreign  words.  The  native  element  comprises 
approximately  one  half  of  all  the  words  in  the  language. 
Of  the  other  half,  the  great  majority  have  been  borrowed, 
directly  or  indirectly,  from  the  Latin.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
words  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin  are  far  more  frequently  used 
than  Latin  derivatives.  The  native  element  forms  the 
groundwork  and  the  framework  of  the  language.  It  com- 
prises nearly  all  the  prepositions,  conjunctions,  and  pro- 
nouns, and  most  of  the  nouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs  in 
common,  everyday  use.  In  fact,  it  contains  the  shortest, 
simplest,  and  most  familiar  words  in  the  language.  The 
words  of  classical  origin  are,  on  the  other  hand,  generally 
longer,  more  learned,  more  pretentious,  and  less  familiar. 

The  real  value  or  usefulness  of  a  word  is  determined 
neither  by  its  length  nor  by  its  derivation.  It  is  true  that, 
other  things  being  equal,  a  short  word,  on  account  of  its 
brevity,  is  usually  better  than  a  long  one,  and  that  a  plain, 

306 


THE   CHOICE  OF   WORDS  307 

familiar  word  will  generally  prove  more  serviceable  than 
an  unfamiliar  and  pretentious  one.  This  statement  of  fact 
is  only  another  way  of  saying  that  conciseness  is  one  mode 
of  securing  effectiveness,  that  simplicity  is  a  valuable  aid 
to  clearness,  and  that  a  familiar  word,  because  it  makes  a 
more  immediate  and  more  vivid  impression  on  the  mind,  is 
generally  more  serviceable  than  an  unfamiliar  word.  In 
speaking  or  writing  of  ordinary  matters,  one  will  find  the 
short,  familiar  words  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin  best  adapted 
to  his  purpose ;  but  when  dealing  with  scientific,  complex, 
and  abstract  ideas,  one  must  frequently  resort  to  the 
longer  and  less  familiar  words,  which  are  generally  of 
classical  derivation. 

The  following  passages  are  worth  studying.  The  authors 
no  doubt  tried  to  make  the  best  possible  choice  of  words, 
without  regard  to  length  or  origin.  The  words  of  foreign 
derivation  have  been  italicized.  The  first  passage  consists 
almost  entirely  of  native  English  words ;  only  about  six 
per  cent  of  the  whole  number  are  of  foreign  origin.  In 
the  second  quotation  one-fourth  of  the  total  number  of 
words  are  foreign  —  about  the  usual  proportion  in  ordi- 
nary prose.  In  the  third  passage,  chiefly  because  of  the 
nature  of  the  ideas  with  which  the  writer  deals,  more  than 
two-fifths  of  the  words  are  of  foreign  origin  :  — 

1.  An  acorn  is  not  an  oak  tree  when  it  is  sprouted.  It  must  go 
through  long  summers  and  fierce  winters  ;  it  has  to  endure  all  that  frost 
and  snow  and  thunder  and  storm  and  side-striking  winds  can  bring 
before  it  is  a  full-grown  oak.  These  are  rough  teachers ;  but  rugged 
schoolmasters  make  rugged  pupils.  So  a  man  is  not  a  man  when  he 
is  created;  he  is  only  begun.  His  manhood  must  come  with  years. 
A  man  who  goes  through  life  prosperous  and  comes  to  his  grave  with- 
out a  wrinkle  is  not  half  a  man.1 

1  Henry  Ward  Beecher. 


308  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

2.  My  advice  to  young  working-men  desirous  of  bettering  their  cir- 
cumstances and  adding  to  the  amount  of  their  enjoyment  is  a  wry 
simple  one.  Do  not  seek  happiness  in  what  is  misnamed  pleasure; 
seek  it  rather  in  what  is  termed  study.  Keep  your  consciences  clear, 
your  curiosity  fresh,  and  embrace  every  opportunity  of  cultivating  your 
minds.  Learn  to  make  a  right  use  of  your  eyes  :  the  commonest  things 
are  worth  looking  at — even  stones  and  weeds  and  the  most  familiar 
animals.1 

3.  Our  first  literature  consisted  of  saintly  legends  and  romances  of 
chivalry,  though  Chaucer  gave  it  a  more  national  and  popular  charac- 
ter by  his  original  descriptions  of  external  nature,  and  the  familiarity 
and  gayety  of  his  social  humor.  In  the  time  of  Elizabeth  it  received  a 
copious  infiision  of  classical  images  and  ttfctf ,*  but  it  was  still  intrinsi- 
cally romantic,  serious,  and  even  somewhat  lofty  and  enthusiastic.'1 

It  will  be  noticed  that  some  of  these  words  of  foreign 
origin  are  short  familiar  words  in  common  use;  as,  for 
example,  add,  very,  simple,  clear,  school,  use,  common,  study. 
The  conclusion  of  the  whole  matter  is  this :  a  writer,  in 
seeking  to  find  the  one  word  that  will  best  express  a  given 
idea,  need  not  make  an  anxious  search  for  the  shortest 
possible  word,  or  be  shy  of  using  a  good  word  because  it 
happens  to  be  of  foreign  origin;  but  he  should  rather 
inquire  which  word  is  best  adapted  to  his  special  purpose, 
which  word  will  most  precisely  and  most  vividly  express 
his  meaning.  Adaptation,  precision,  and  effectiveness  are 
the  soundest  tests. 

Accuracy  or  precision  in  the  use  of  words  is  the  prime 
requisite.  A  man  should  first  of  all  have  a  clear  concep- 
tion of  the  exact  thought  that  he  wishes  to  communicate, 
and  he  should  then  choose  such  words  as  will  convey  his 
thought  without  loss,  or  addition,  or  misunderstanding ; 
that  is,  the  word  which  he  chooses  should  exactly  fit  the 
idea  that  he  wishes  to  express.     He  cannot  afford  to  use 

1  Hugh  Miller.  2  Francis  Jeffrey. 


THE   CHOICE   OF   WORDS  309 

words  vaguely  and  inaccurately ;  he  must  not  be  content 
with  mere  makeshifts,  which  only  approximately  express 
his  meaning.  For  the  sake  of  precision  he  must,  in  every 
case,  find  the  one  word  which  exactly  and  inevitably  fits 
his  idea. 

There  are  two  important  kinds  of  words,  and  it  is  neces- 
sary that  a  writer  understand  the  nature  and  the  function 
of  each  kind.  These  two  classes  are  general  and  specific 
words.  General  words  are  simply  the  names  of  class 
ideas ;  as,  for  example,  animal,  plant,  man,  boat,  book,  tree. 
Each  of  these  general  words  calls  to  mind  a  more  or  less 
extensive  class  of  objects  which  have  certain  qualities  in 
common.  As  the  class  becomes  smaller,  the  word  that 
designates  it  becomes  less  general,  and  is  likely  to  call  up 
a  more  definite  conception  in  one's  mind.  Quadruped, 
vegetable,  storekeeper,  steamboat,  text-book,  and  fruit  tree 
are  all  less  general  than  the  words  in  the  first  list.  As  the 
class  becomes  still  smaller,  the  word  that  represents  it  will 
become  more  specific,  will  necessarily  have  a  more  exact 
and  definite  meaning,  and  will  call  up  a  more  vivid  mental 
image.  Horse,  asparagus,  groceryman,  ocean  liner,  spelling- 
book,  and  peach  tree  are  more  specific  than  the  correspond- 
ing words  in  the  other  two  lists.  It  should  be  noticed  also 
that  they  have  a  more  exact  meaning,  and  make  a  more 
definite  impression  on  the  mind.  It  is  possible  to  go  one 
step  farther  and  find  some  expression  that  will  designate  a 
single  individual  member  of  each  class.  The  following  ex- 
pressions are  as  specific  as  they  can  be  made:  Maud S., 
the  bunch  of  asparagus  that  I  bought  this  morning,  the 
man  who  keeps  the-  grocery  store  at  the  corner  of  Duke  and 
Vine  streets,  the  "  Oceanic,"  the  spelling-book  that  lies  on 
my  desk,  the  crooked  peach  tree  in  the  middle  of  the  garden. 
The  distinction  between  general  and  specific  terms  applies 


3IO  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

not  only  to  nouns,  but  also  to  verbs  and  modifiers.  For 
example,  walk,  speak,  and  write  are  general;  strut,  yell,  and 
engrave  are  specific.  In  the  expression,  "  a  good  man,"  the 
modifier  is  a  general  word ;  but  when  one  speaks  of  "  the  man 
who  pays  his  debts,"  the  modifier  is  specific  in  meaning. 

Both  general  and  specific  words  form  a  valuable  and 
necessary  part  of  the  language,  and  it  would  be  a  mistake 
to  say  that  words  of  one  class  are  better  or  more  use- 
ful than  those  of  another.  General  terms  are  well-nigh 
indispensable,  for  without  them  we  should  have  no  con- 
venient way  of  designating  general  ideas.  It  is  vastly 
easier,  for  instance,  to  say  "  all  the  countries  of  Europe  " 
than  to  mention  by  name  Great  Britain,  France,  Germany, 
Austria,  Russia,  and  a  dozen  or  more  other  countries.  Just 
as  general  ideas  form  an  essential  part  of  our  thinking, 
so  general  terms  are  practically  indispensable  in  the  com- 
munication of  our  thoughts.  They  are  of  the  greatest 
possible  service  in  the  literature  of  thought. 

In  description  and  narration,  on  the  other  hand,  spe- 
cific terms,  which  represent  ideas  definitely  and  concretely, 
are  most  useful  for  precise  and  effective  expression. 
They  possess  great  graphic  power  because  they  produce 
in  the  mind  of  the  reader  clear  and  vivid  images.  The 
mental  images  produced  by  general  terms  are,  on  the 
contrary,  vague  and  shadowy.  One  of  the  commonest 
mistakes  that  young  writers  make  in  their  choice  of  words 
is  to  use  vague  general  terms  when  both  precision  and 
effectiveness  demand  specific  language.  An  examination 
of  the  work  of  almost  any  successful  writer  will  reveal 
an  abundance  of  illustrations,  concrete  -exam pies,  precise 
and  definite  words.  The  following  sentences,  taken  from 
Kipling's  "  Captains  Courageous,"  illustrate  the  graphic 
power  of  specific  language:  — 


THE   CHOICE  OF  WORDS  311 

The  needle  of  the  speed-indicator  flicked  and  wagged  to  and  fro ; 
the  cinders  rattled  on  the  roof,  and  a  whirl  of  dust  sucked  after  the 
whirling  wheels. 

The  black  bulk  of  the  cook  balanced  behind  the  tiny  galley  over 
the  glare  of  the  stove,  and  the  pots  and  pans  in  the  pierced  wooden 
board  before  it  jarred  and  racketed  to  every  plunge. 

A  jaunty  little  feather  of  water  curled  in  front  of  it,  and  as  it  lifted  it 
showed  a  long  ladder  of  Roman  numerals  — XV,  XVI,  XVII,  XVIII, 
and  so  forth  —  on  a  salmon-colored,  gleaming  side.  It  tilted  forward 
and  downward  with  a  heart-stilling  "  Sssooo  "  ;  the  ladder  disappeared  ; 
a  line  of  brass-rimmed  port-holes  flashed  past ;  a  jet  of  steam  puffed  in 
Harvey's  helplessly  uplifted  hands ;  a  spout  of  hot  water  roared  along 
the  rail  of  the  We're  Here,  and  the  little  schooner  staggered  and  shook  in 
a  rush  of  screw-torn  water  as  a  liner's  stern  vanished  in  the  fog. 

To  write  effectively,  one  must  also  choose  words  and 
devise  phrases  that  possess  life  and  vigor.  In  various  ways 
a  large  number  of  pretentious  phrases,  tawdry  circumlocu- 
tions, and  scraps  of  popular  quotations  have  obtained  a 
wide  currency.  They  give  a  kind  of  cheap  smartness  to 
the  talk  of  the  half-educated,  and  they  flourish  unmolested 
in  the  columns  of  small  country  newspapers.  A  man  who 
wishes  to  write  with  elegance  and  force  should  shun  these 
trite  or  hackneyed  phrases.  They  have  been  bandied 
about  so  much  that  they  have  lost  all  force  and  freshness. 
Most  men  have  heard  and  seen  them  so  often  that  their 
very  familiarity  has  brought  them  into  general  disrepute 
and  contempt.  Some  of  them  were  apt  and  forcible  when 
they  were  first  used,  but  they  have  become  so  worn  away 
and  battered  about  by  constant  use  that  they  have  long 
since  lost  their  original  value  and  brightness.  Hackneyed 
phrases  are  ineffective  because  they  lack  freshness  and 
vividness. 

Not  every  one,  however,  is  able  to  recognize  a  well-worn 
phrase  as  hackneyed  when  he  meets  with  it  for  the  first 
time.     To  the  young  and  inexperienced  writer  some  un- 


312 


COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 


familiar  expression  may  appear  strikingly  apt  and  forcible, 
and  he  accordingly  treasures  it  up  and  uses  it  at  the  first 
opportunity,  only  to  discover  later  that  it  has  become  so 
hackneyed  as  to  have  lost  all  power  to  produce  a  vivid 
impression.  The  student,  therefore,  needs  to  be  warned 
against  these  threadbare  expressions  in  order  that  he  may 
avoid  them.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  most  common 
hackneyed  phrases,  and  the  student  will  do  well  to  be  on 
his  guard  against  them  :  — 


Downy  couch. 
Lower  limbs. 
Lithe  forms. 
Pale  as  death. 
A  shining  mark. 
The  briny  deep. 
A  grand  ovation. 
A  son  of  Nimrod. 
The  finny  tribe. 
Misguided  youth. 
Sumptuous  repast. 
Sylph-like  forms. 
Tonsorial  artist. 
Caudal  appendage. 
His  native  heath. 
Kitchen  mechanic. 
Imposing  edifices. 
The  lacteal  fluid. 
He  wended  his  way. 
Retraced  his  steps. 
His  native  element. 
His  paternal  acres. 
Every  walk  of  life. 
Author  of  my  being. 
The  finger  of  fate. 
Dead  as  a  door  nail. 
Faded  into  oblivion. 
Culinary  department. 


To  make  night  hideous. 
A  monster  mass-meeting. 
Launched  into  eternity. 
Discoursed  sweet  music. 
The  green-eyed  monster. 
Too  full  for  utterance. 
Counterfeit  presentment. 
From  morn  till  dewy  eve. 
Praiseworthy  innovation. 
Satisfied  the  inner  man. 
Disastrous  conflagration. 
The  place  of  his  nativity. 
Applauded  him  to  the  echo. 
Through  storm  and  sunshine. 
As  happy  as  the  day  is  long. 
Lost  his  mental  equilibrium. 
He  made  a  pronounced  success. 
Embarked  on  a  new  enterprise. 
Shuffled  off  this  mortal  coil. 
The  observed  of  all  observers. 
The  plaudits  of  the  multitude. 
The  dreamy  mazes  of  the  waltz. 
Shook  off  this  earthly  burden. 
Blessed  with  liberal  endowments. 
Large  and  enthusiastic  audience. 
Partook  of  an  elegant  collation. 
He  held  the  multitude  spellbound. 
The  edifice  was  entirely  consumed. 


THE  CHOICE  OF  WORDS  313 

His  nether  garments.  Solemnized  the  rites  of  matrimony. 

Expounded  the  Gospel.  He  engaged  in  commercial  pursuits. 

The  stealthy  redskin.  In  a  beastly  state  of  intoxication. 

The  infuriated  beast.  Old  Sol  diffused  his  genial  warmth. 

My  paternal  ancestor.  Interrupted  with  tumultuous  applause. 

Victorious  conflicts.  Fraught  with  disastrous  consequences. 

The  silvery  moonlight.  Posing  before  the  dazzling  footlights. 

Down  through  the  ages.  He  gazed  upon  a  sea  of  upturned  faces. 

Dizzy  heights  of  fame.  He  was  tendered  a  magnificent  ovation. 

The  little  hamlet  nestled  in  the  valley. 
His  spirit  quitted  its  earthly  habitation. 
A  successful  aspirant  for  political  honors. 
He  imbibed  too  freely  of  the  cup  that  cheers. 
Led  the  blushing  bride  to  the  hymeneal  altar. 
Throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  land. 
Endorse  the  sentiments  of  the  previous  speaker. 
Passed  into  the  brighter  light  of  an  eternal  day. 
The  progress  of  the  devouring  element  was  arrested. 
The  remains  of  the  departed  were  consigned  to  earth. 

Many  of  the  pretentious  phrases  in  the  forgoing  list  are 
the  product  of  what  is  commonly  known  as  "fine  writing." 
Some  people,  apparently  fearing  that  their  thought  may 
appear  too  commonplace  if  clothed  in  plain,  ordinary  lan- 
guage, attempt  to  adorn  it  with  all  sorts  of  verbal  finery. 
They  have  no  appreciation  of  the  fact  that  true  elegance 
is  the  result  of  careful  adaptation  of  language  to  thought, 
but  seem  to  think  that  mere  showiness  is  all  that  is  needed 
to  give  beauty  and  distinction  to  one's  style.  By  proceed- 
ing on  this  mistaken  notion  of  what  constitutes  elegance 
they  defeat  their  own  purpose.  Moreover,  the  thought 
soon  ceases  to  be  the  writer's  main  concern ;  his  only 
object  is  to  seek  many  high-sounding  words  and  phrases 
and  to  string  them  together  as  a  child  might  string  to- 
gether a  necklace  of  gay-colored  beads.  Sonorous  phrases, 
excessive  alliteration,  an  abundance  of  epithet,  and  a  tropi- 


3H  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC 

cal  luxuriance  of  figurative  language  are  the  distinguishing 
marks  of  "  fine  writing."  All  these  characteristics  may  be 
seen  in  the  following  passage:  — 

Napoleon,  the  adventurous  vagrant  of  Corsica,  first  lifting  the  fair 
form  of  France,  battered  and  bemired,  from  the  slough  of  ignominy 
and  revolution,  and  then  marshalling  the  scions  of  her  shattered  and 
fallen  chivalry,  dauntlessly  hurled  them  forward,  with  the  flame  of  the 
tiger  in  their  eyes,  with  the  spirit  of  the  lion  in  their  breasts,  and  with  the 
assurance  of  success  in  their  deeds  ;  and,  by  a  few  swift  strokes,  placed 
France  upon  the  pinnacle  of  preeminence  from  which  she  spread  her 
grandeur  and  glory  over  all  Europe  from  Madrid  to  Moscow.  Such 
was  Napoleon,  the  young  eagle  of  war,  who  feared  naught  but  Nature ; 
and  even  when  she,  stern  and  inexorable,  blocked  his  path  with  insuper- 
able obstacles,  the  valorous  Corsican  would  cry,  "  Sound  the  charge  ! " 
and  whether  the  blast  pealed  forth  from  the  icy  peaks  of  the  Alps,  or 
rolled  along  the  sun-kissed  plains  of  Austria,  or  bounded  along  the 
reddened  drifts  of  Russia,  France  followed  her  undaunted  chieftain  to 
carnage  and  to  glory. 

Finally,  if  one  would  write  with  the  highest  art  and  skill, 
he  must  take  into  account  the  connotation  as  well  as  the 
denotation  of  words  ;  he  must  consider  the  idea  that  a  word 
suggests,  or  connotes,  as  well  as  the  idea  that  it  actually 
denotes.  Many  words  have  a  subtle  power  of  suggestion 
quite  apart  from  their  ordinary  meaning  ;  that  is,  they 
suggest  or  imply  much  more  than  they  actually  say.  The 
same  idea  may  be  expressed  in  a  number  of  ways,  and  in 
every  case  there  will  be  a  difference  in  the  effect  produced. 
For  example,  the  phrases  "  old  sailor"  and  "ancient  mari- 
ner "  are  practically  synonymous ;  yet  they  do  not  convey 
precisely  the  same  thought  or  make  the  same  impression. 
In  the  mind  of  the  average  reader  each  of  these  phrases  is 
likely  to  produce  a  very  different  conception.  The  con- 
notation of  words,  in  fact,  has  much  to  do  with  the  exact 
impression  which  a  given  thought  makes  upon  the  reader's 


THE   CHOICE   OF   WORDS  315 

mind ;  and  a  writer,  therefore,  if  he  would  choose  words 
well  adapted  to  produce  precisely  the  effect  he  aims  at, 
must  take  into  account  the  suggestive  force  as  well  as  the 
ordinary  meaning  of  words. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Write  a  theme  on  some  subject  found  in  List  VII,  Appendix  E, 
or  on  some  other  subject  approved  by  your  instructor. 

II.  1.  In  the  following  passages  note  the  difference  of  effect  pro- 
duced by  short  words  and  long  words. 

2.  Note  the  difference  between  the  effect  produced  by  Anglo-Saxon 
words  and  that  produced  by  words  of  foreign  derivation. 

3.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  words  of  foreign  origin  in  each  passage. 

4.  In  the  first  passage  what  proportion  of  the  words  are  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  origin  ?     What  proportion  in  the  second  passage  ? 

(a)  That  part  of  our  speech  which  comes  down  from  our  sires,  far 
back  in  the  days  of  yore,  is  made  up  in  large  part  of  those  words  which 
we  can  speak  with  one  pulse  of  the  breath  and  one  stroke  of  the  tongue. 
The  stream  of  time,  through  a  long  tract  of  years,  and  from  lands  not 
our  own,  has  brought  down  to  us  a  vast  drift  of  new  and  strange  terms, 
poor  as  they  are  long,  by  which  we  lose  in  strength  more  than  we  gain 
in  sound.  But  the  good  old  stock  of  words  is  not  lost.  They  shine 
out  here  and  there  from  the  heap  in  bright  points,  like  stars  when  a  fog 
dims  the  air,  or  the  face  of  the  sky  is  dark  with  clouds.  It  will  pay  us 
for  our  toil  to  mine  out'  these  gems  and  string  them  on  the  chain  of  our 
thoughts,  which  will  then  shine  with  a  new  light  ;  and  though  the 
tongue  may  lose  in  sound,  it  will  be  all  the  more  fit  to  speak  all  that 
the  deep  soul  can  feel.  The  heart  beats  throb  by  throb,  and  thus  the 
tongue  should  keep  in  tune  while  it  vents  the  heart's  joys  and  pains. 
The  arts  of  life  and  the  lore  of  the  head  may  call  for  terms  cold  and 
long ;  but  let  all  that  the  heart  thinks  and  feels  come  from  the  depths 
of  the  soul  in  "  thoughts  that  breathe  and  words  that  burn."  J 

(&)  An  elegant  style  is  a  character  expressing  a  higher  degree  of 
ornament  than  a  neat  one  ;  and  indeed  the  term  is  usually  applied  to 
style  when  possessing  all  the  virtues  of  ornament  without  any  of  its 

1  G.  W.  McPhail. 


316  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

excesses  or  defects.  From  what  has  been  formerly  delivered  it  will 
easily  be  understood  that  complete  elegance  implies  great  perspicuity 
and  propriety :  purity  in  the  choice  of  words,  and  care  and  dexterity 
in  their  harmonious  and  happy  arrangement.  It  implies,  further,  the 
grace  and  beauty  of  imagination  spread  over  style,  as  far  as  the  subject 
admits  it,  and  all  the  illustration  which  figurative  language  adds  when 
properly  employed.  In  a  word,  an  elegant  writer  is  one  who  pleases 
the  fancy  and  the  ear  while  he  informs  the  understanding,  and  who 
gives  us  his  ideas  clothed  with  all  the  beauty  of  expression,  but  not 
overcharged  with  any  of  its  misplaced  finery.  When  the  ornaments 
applied  to  style  are  too  rich  and  gaudy  in  proportion  to  the  subject, 
when  they  return  upon  us  too  fast  and  strike  us  either  with  a  dazzling 
lustre  or  a  false  brilliancy,  this  forms  what  is  called  a  florid  style,  —  a 
term  commonly  used  to  signify  the  excess  of  ornament.1 

III.  Translate  the  following  sentences  into  more  specific  language :  — 

i.   The  man  was  tall  and  erect. 

2.  For  some  time  he  suffered  from  ill  health. 

3.  The  scarcity  of  fuel  produced  not  a  little  distress. 

4.  One  of  these  young  women  was  a  fine  teacher  and  had  very  nice 
ways. 

5.  The  man  went  into  the  house  and  made  himself  comfortable. 

6.  One  of  my  friends  spent  the  summer  abroad  in  sight-seeing. 

7.  At  college  he  studied  English  and  had  a  good  course  in  mathe- 
matics. 

8.  The  noise  of  the  saw  and  planes  and  wheels  was  heard  above  the 
noise  of  the  water. 

9.  With  a  cry  the  animal  moved  toward  me,  and   I   immediately 
made  haste  to  ascend  a  tree. 

10.  Some  time  ago  I  saw  a  man  sowing  grain.     In  the  same  field 
were  some  boys  at  work  with  farming  implements. 

11.  We  heard  a  noise  in  the  thicket  and  a  little  later  the  frightened 
animal  moved  into  the  path. 

12.  The  man  had  a  curious  voice.     When  he  asked  me  to  give  up 
the  instrument  that  I  had  in  my  hands,  I  felt  queer. 

13.  We  built  a  hasty  structure  of  branches,  made  a  bed  of  boughs, 
started  a  fire,  and  sat  down  and  watched  it  light  up  the  trees. 

1  Dr.  Hugh  Blair's  "  Lectures  on  Rhetoric  and  Belles  Lettres,"  Lecture  XVIII. 


THE   CHOICE   OF   WORDS  317 

14.  As  I  passed  through  the  orchard,  eating  now  and  then  of  the 
fruit,  I  noticed  the  song  of  a  bird  among  the  foliage. 

IV.  Let  each  member  of  the  class  select,  from  some  book  or  maga- 
zine that  he  has  read,  a  passage  that  illustrates  the  graphic  power  of 
specific  language  ;  and  let  him  read  this  passage  to  the  class. 

V.  Translate  the  following  sentences  into  simple,  unhackneyed 
language  :  — 

1.  On  the  eve  of  the  glorious  Fourth  young  America  made  night 
hideous  into  the  wee,  small  hours. 

2.  Large  strings  of  speckled  beauties  have  lately  gladdened  the 
hearts  of  our  local  Izaak  Waltons. 

3.  The  infuriated  animal,  freed  from  the  demolished  vehicle,  dashed 
through  the  great  concourse  of  people,  and  at  last  sought  refuge  in  his 
familiar  habitation. 

4.  At  the  witching  hour  of  midnight  the  assembled  multitude,  who 
had  been  tripping  the  light,  fantastic  toe  and  gliding  through  the  dizzy 
mazes  of  the  waltz,  wended  their  way  homeward. 

5.  At  this  stage  in  the  proceedings  an  individual  who  is  not  entirely 
unknown  to  fame,  and  who  is  ordinarily  designated  by  the  not  uncom- 
mon cognomen  of  Smith,  at  last  acceded  to  the  vociferous  demands  of 
the  enthusiastic  audience,  and  succeeded  in  scoring  the  success  of  the 
evening. 

VI.  Let  each  student  collect  from  the  columns  of  local  newspapers 
passages  that  contain  hackneyed  phrases  and  "  fine  writing."  These 
clippings  the  instructor  can  assign  as  blackboard  exercises,  asking  the 
members  of  the  class  to  translate  the  passages  into  simple,  unhackneyed 
language. 


CHAPTER   XXII 
HOW   ONE   MAY   IMPROVE    HIS   VOCABULARY 

Who  has  not,  at  some  time  or  other,  felt  himself  handi- 
capped because  he  lacked  instant  command  of  just  the 
right  word  ?  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  working 
vocabulary  of  the  average  man  is  lamentably  meagre. 
Men  who  have  analyzed  the  vocabularies  of  college  stu- 
dents declare  that  the  average  freshman  has  little  more 
than  twelve  hundred  words  at  his  command.  It  is  ex- 
tremely doubtful  whether  the  average  business  man  is 
much  better  equipped.  The  educated  man,  according  to 
a  fair  estimate,  has  a  working  vocabulary  of  about  three 
or  four  thousand  words.  Yet  the  English  language  con- 
tains, according  to  the  Century  Dictionary,  about  two 
hundred  thousand  words.1  Generally  speaking,  no  two 
words  have  precisely  the  same  meaning.  Each  word  has 
its  own  work  to  do  in  the  world  of  thought. 

The  student  who  has  often  felt  himself  at  a  loss  for 
the  one  word  that  will  express  his  exact  meaning  naturally 
asks  himself,  How  can  I  increase  and  enrich  my  stock  of 
English  words?  Since  words  are  the  instruments  of 
thought  and  are  absolutely  essential  to  the  expression 
of  our  ideas,  this  is  a  question  of  vital  importance  to 
every  student  of  Composition.  It  is  possible  to  suggest 
a  few  simple  and  practicable  methods  by  which  any  one 

1 A  large  number  of  these  words  are,  of  course,  purely  technical  terms  which 
only  specialists  are  likely  to  use. 

318 


HOW   ONE   MAY   IMPROVE   HIS   VOCABULARY      319 

can  substantially  increase  and  permanently  improve  his 
working  vocabulary.  These  suggestions,  it  must  be  con- 
fessed, are  simple  and  commonplace  enough ;  but  they 
should  not  be  despised  because  of  their  simplicity. 

1.  Every  one  has  really  three  vocabularies.  One  vocab- 
ulary, no  doubt  the  smallest  of  the  three,  he  uses  in  his 
everyday  conversation.  Another  vocabulary,  considerably 
larger  than  the  first,  he  uses  whenever  he  undertakes  to 
commit  his  thoughts  to  paper.  A  third  vocabulary,  usually 
much  larger  than  either  of  the  others,  he  employs  when- 
ever he  reads  a  book.  These  three  vocabularies  differ  not 
only  in  size,  but  also  in  the  kinds  of  words  that  compose 
them.  For  instance,  in  ordinary  conversation  almost  every 
one  permits  himself  the  use  of  certain  colloquialisms  that 
he  would  not  think  of  employing  in  formal  and  dignified 
composition.  On  the  other  hand,  certain  words  that  come 
readily  to  mind  when  we  write  are  hardly  ever  used  in  our 
talk.  These  words  are  not  out  of  place  in  our  written 
compositions,  but  we  have  an  uneasy  feeling  that  they 
would  sound  stilted  and  bookish  if  used  in  our  ordinary 
talk  about  common  things.  Now  these  two  vocabularies, 
which  are  used  in  conversation  and  in  formal  composition, 
are  kept  in  constant  service.  The  words  that  they  contain 
are  "  on  the  active  list."  They  are  like  current  coin  which 
is  kept  in  continual  circulation. 

The  third  vocabulary,  however,  which  we  use  only  in 
our  reading,  is  passive  and  inactive.  We  use  it  for  the 
apprehension  of  another's  thought,  but  not  for  the  expres- 
sion of  our  own  ideas.  We  understand  the  meaning  of  the 
words  that  compose  it,  but  we  have  never  become  so  well 
acquainted  with  them  that  we  feel  free  to  use  them  famil- 
iarly. The  words  that  make  up  this  inactive  vocabulary 
are,  so  to  speak,  "  on   the  waiting   list."   They  are  like 


320  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

money  which  is  hoarded  up  in  the  bank.  No  doubt 
almost  every  reader  has  a  large  supply  of  these  avail- 
able words  "on  the  waiting  list."  They  constitute  one 
of  the  chief  resources  of  every  man  who  would  improve 
his  vocabulary.  This  stock  of  inactive  words  can  readily 
be  made  useful  if  one  is  only  willing  to  draw  upon  it ;  but, 
to  use  a  commercial  metaphor,  they  must  be  taken  out  of 
bank  and  put  into  circulation.  They  are  ours  to  use ;  they 
have  somehow  become  a  part  of  our  intellectual  property. 
We  may  feel  sure"  that  they  will  prove  to  be  as  serviceable 
to  us  as  to  others.  We  should  accordingly  make  a  con- 
scious effort  to  use  them.  In  order  to  do  so,  we  have  only 
to  overcome  an  initial  sense  of  strangeness  and  timidity. 
We  have  only  to  conquer  our  "initial  inertia,"  which  is 
another  name  for  laziness.  After  we  have  used  these 
words  once  or  twice,  they  become  familiar  and  useful 
friends.  Upon  closer  acquaintance  they  become  indis- 
pensable. Then  we  wonder  how  we  ever  got  on  without 
them.  Therefore,  if  one  would  extend  his  command  of 
language,  he  should  make  an  effort  to  transfer  these  words 
from  the  waiting  list  to  the  active  list. 

2.  There  are  two  respects  in  which  the  average  man  can 
improve  his  vocabulary  :  he  can  improve  it  both  in  quantity 
and  in  quality.  The  man  who  would  strengthen  his  means 
of  expression  must  have  two  definite-  ends  in  view :  first, 
he  must  keep  adding  to  his  stock  of  useful  words,  so  as  to 
make  an  actual  increase  in  his  vocabulary  ;  second,  he  must 
strive  to  learn  the  precise  use  and  the  exact  value  of  every 
word  that  he  calls  into  service.  These  two  ends  cannot 
be  attained  by  reading  the  dictionary,  though  the  student 
of  words  must  constantly  refer  to  a  good  unabridged  dic- 
tionary. It  will  prove  to  be  an  excellent  guide,  counsellor, 
and  friend.    Yet  one  must  remember  that  the  two  hundred 


HOW  ONE  MAY  IMPROVE  HIS  VOCABULARY   32 1 

thousand  words  that  make  up  the  English  language  cover 
the  whole  field  of  human  knowledge.  No  one  can  learn  to 
use  this  vast  number  of  words ;  no  one  will  ever  have 
occasion  to  use  them  all.  In  fact,  the  vocabulary  which 
any  one  person  needs  in  speaking  and  in  writing  neces- 
sarily forms  only  a  very  small  part  of  the  total  number  of 
words  in  the  language.  One's  vocabulary,  however,  should 
be  well  enough  stocked  to  meet  all  the  exigencies  of  ex- 
pression. Above  all,  within  the  limits  of  the  restricted 
working  vocabulary  which  every  one  employs,  he  should 
feel  thoroughly  at  home ;  he  should  know  what  each  word 
is  worth;  he  should  know  just  when  and  how  to  use  each 
of  these  instruments  of  thought.  If  a  man  would  say  pre- 
cisely what  he  means,  if  he  would  express  his  thought 
without  loss,  without  waste  of  effort,  without  the  possi- 
bility of  being  misunderstood,  he  must  become  as  familiar 
with  the  means  of  expression  as  a  carpenter  is  with  his 
tools.  Let  every  one,  therefore,  "  seek  to  find  out  acceptable 
words  "  and  to  know  the  exact  value  and  use  of  each. 

3.  What  is  the  best  way  of  adding  to  one's  stock  of 
words  ?  The  answer  is  simple :  the  best  way  to  increase 
the  size  of  one's  vocabulary  is  to  master  every  new  word 
that  one  encounters.  The  student  should  not  be  content 
to  guess  at  the  probable  meaning  of  the  new  words  that 
he  meets  with  in  his  reading.  Here  is  an  opportunity 
to  become  acquainted  with  these  strangers  and  to  make 
friends  with  them.  They  may  do  him  many  a  good  turn 
by  and  by.  Now,  in  order  to  master  a  new  word,  one 
must  learn  at  least  three  things  about  it:  (1)  its  meaning, 
(2)  its  pronunciation,  and  (3)  its  spelling.  These  three 
things  are  absolutely  indispensable.  Certainly  one  should 
know  the  meaning  of  a  word  before  he  ventures  to  use  it; 
otherwise  he  runs  great  risk  of  making  himself  ridiculous. 


322  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

Secondly,  one  should  learn  the  correct  pronunciation  of 
a  new  word ;  else  he  will  never  feel  free  to  use  the  word 
in  his  conversation  or  to  pronounce  it  when  reading  aloud. 
Thirdly,  one  should  learn  the  spelling  of  a  new  word ;  else 
he  will  feel  very  reluctant  about  writing  it  down ;  and  he 
may  be  strongly  tempted  to  substitute  another  word  which 
expresses  his  idea  only  approximately  and  inadequately. 

The  student  is  doubtless  inclined  to  ask,  Shall  I  run 
to  the  dictionary  every  few  minutes?  To  this  question 
there  is  only  one  answer :  certainly  he  should  consult  the 
dictionary  whenever  it  is  necessary.  The  truth  is,  a  man 
has  never  learned  to  read — that  is,  to  apprehend  the 
written  thought  of  others  —  until  he  has  acquired  a  large 
stock  of  English  words.  Nor  will  he  be  able  to  write  — 
that  is,  to  express  his  own  thoughts  with  clearness  and 
vigor  —  so  long  as  his  vocabulary  is  meagre  and  inade- 
quate. He  should  therefore  strive  to  overcome  the 
"  initial  inertia  "  already  mentioned.  For  a  while,  at  least, 
he  should  be  willing  to  make  the  dictionary  his  familiar 
friend  and  comrade.  He  should  always  have  it  within 
easy  reach.  It  is  poor  economy  to  stow  it  away  in  some 
inaccessible  corner  and  to  pile  other  books  upon  it.  To 
consult  the  dictionary  immediately  is,  of  course,  often 
inconvenient  or  impossible.  The  student  will  there- 
fore find  it  well  to  keep  a  tiny  note-book  in  which 
he  can  jot  down  the  new  words  that  he  meets.  He  can 
then  look  them  up  at  his  leisure.  But  whether  the 
reader  who  meets  with  a  new  word  consults  the  diction- 
ary at  once  or  at  some  more  convenient  season,  he  ought 
never  to  pass  unthinkingly  over  a  strange  word  as  if  it 
were  a  slight  and  insignificant  thing.  Only  by  mastering 
all  the  new  words  that  he  meets  can  he  hope  to  make 
the   most  substantial   additions   to   his   vocabulary.      He 


HOW   ONE   MAY   IMPROVE   HIS    VOCABULARY     323 

should  further  seek  to  become  thoroughly  familiar  with 
these  new  words  by  using  them  in  his  conversation  and  his 
compositions  whenever  occasion  arises.  By  learning  only 
five  new  words  a  day,  the  average  man,  in  the  course 
of  a  single  year,  can  almost  double  his  vocabulary.  The 
stitdent  should  tJierefore  learn  the  meaning,  the  pronuncia- 
tion, and  the  spelling  of  every  new  word. 

4.  Another  way  in  which  one  can  improve  his  vocabu- 
lary is  by  the  study  of  Latin.  Nearly  one-half  of  our 
English  words  come,  directly  or  indirectly,  from  the  Latin 
language.  The  teacher  of  English  is  often  constrained 
to  lament  the  fact  that  the  study  of  Latin  in  our  high 
schools  and  colleges  has  of  late  years  been  a  good  deal 
discredited.  It  has  been  noticed  that  the  student  who 
pursues  the  studies  usually  required  for  admission  to  a 
scientific  or  a  technological  institution  has  a  far  more 
meagre  vocabulary  than  the  freshman  who  has  prepared 
himself  to  take  the  old-fashioned  classical  course.  What- 
ever else  may  be  said  of  classical  studies  as  means  of 
intellectual  discipline,  it  is  certainly  true  that  some  knowl- 
edge of  Latin,  even  though  it  be  slight  and  superficial,  is 
pretty  sure  to  strengthen  and  enrich  one's  knowledge  of 
English  words.  Even  if  the  student  can  do  no  more  than 
become  familiar  with  the  commonest  Latin  roots,  prefixes, 
and  suffixes,  it  is  well  worth  his  while  to  know  these.  He 
should  study  Latin,  therefore,  if  possible,  since  7iearly  one- 
half  of  our  English  words  come  from  the  Latin. 

5.  One  can  also  enrich  his  stock  of  English  words  by 
extensive  reading.  The  student  should  read  carefully, 
and  he  should  read  the  best  books  by  the  best  writers. 
After  all,  our  English  and  American  literature  must  serve 
as  the  great  storehouse  of  English  words.  The  literature 
of  our  language  is  the  reservoir  from  which  we  must  all 


324  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

draw.  The  works  of  our  best  writers  furnish  us  with  the 
only  trustworthy  test  of  correctness,  with  the  only  stand- 
ard of  Good  Use.  The  classics  of  our  literature  often 
give  us  help  that  the  dictionary  would  be  powerless  to 
furnish.  In  the  lexicon  words  are  at  rest.  In  our  litera- 
ture they  are  living  and  active.  There  we  find  each  word 
in  its  appropriate  setting.  Do  you  recall  that  clause  in 
Lincoln's  Gettysburg  Address  which  begins,  —  "  that  we 
here  highly  resolve  "  ?  Can  any  dictionary  give  so  exact 
an  appreciation,  so  vivid  a  sense  of  the  value  and  use  of 
that  one  little  word  highly  ?  The  student,  then,  who  is  de- 
sirous of  improving  his  vocabulary  should  read  many  good 
books,  and  shoidd  read  them  carefully  and  thoughtfully. 

6.  One  way  in  which  the  student  will  gradually  but 
surely  gain  a  better  command  of  words  is  by  writing  a 
great  deal.  It  is  not  sufficient  merely  to  know  words  :  one 
should  get  into  the  habit  of  using  them  readily  and  accu- 
rately. It  is  only  by  painstaking  practice  in  writing  and 
in  speaking  that  any  one  can  attain  sufficient  familiarity, 
facility,  fluency,  and  precision  in  the  use  of  words.  In 
writing  one  should  always  take  pains  to  find  the  one 
word  that  will  exactly  suit  his  idea.  It  may  take  anxious 
thought  and  careful  search  to  find  just  the  right  word; 
but  the  result  will  be  worth  the  effort.  The  careful  writer 
is  never  content  with  substitutes  and  makeshifts ;  they  are 
dangerous  pitfalls.  By  constant  and  painstaking  practice 
in  composition,  then,  the  student  can  gain  power  and  pre- 
cision in  the  use  of  words. 

7.  Another  valuable  exercise,  closely  related  to  that  of 
composition,  is  the  practice  of  translating  from  a  foreign 
tongue.  Nowadays  almost  every  student  studies  at  least 
one  language  besides  his  own.  In  order  to  make  a  satis- 
factory translation,  one  must  transfer  the  thought  from  one 


HOW   ONE   MAY   IMPROVE   HIS   VOCABULARY      325 

language  to  another  without  loss  or  addition,  and  without 
violation  of  English  idiom.  Translation,  therefore ,  furnishes 
an  excellent  exercise  by  which  any  one  can  gain  the  ability  to 
distinguish  the  exact  meanings  of  words,  and acqtiire  a  work- 
ing knowledge  of  tJie  commo?i  English  idioms. 

8.  There  is  no  better  way  in  which  one  may  improve 
the  quality  and  serviceableness  of  his  vocabulary  than  by 
honestly  striving  to  observe  these  fine  distinctions  and 
delicate  shades  of  meaning  in  the  use  of  words.  This 
power  to  make  close  and  exact  discriminations  in  words 
can  be  kept  in  a  state  of  constant  growth  and  activity. 
The  student  should  always  keep  himself  alert  to  the  exact 
values  of  words  and  to  their  finer  shades  of  meaning. 
This  power  of  discrimination  can  be  cultivated  in  several 
ways. 

First,  the  student  can  help  himself  by  making  a  study  of 
synonyms  a?id  anto?iyms.  Such  books  of  reference  as 
Crabbe's  "  English  Synonyms,"  Roget's  "  Thesaurus  of 
English  Words,"  and  Fernald's  "Synonyms  and  Anto- 
nyms "  are  good  teachers  for  every  student  of  English 
Composition.  Secondly,  one  should  study  the  history  and 
the  etymological  derivation  of  words.  A  knowledge  of  the 
origin  and  the  life  of  a  word  will  often  help  one  to  appre- 
ciate its  force  and  value.  Trench's  "  Study  of  Words  " 
and  "  English  Past  and  Present,"  and  Greenough  and 
Kittredge's  "  Words  and  their  Ways  in  English  Speech  " 
are  intensely  interesting  books  and  can  hardly  fail  to  give 
one  a  taste  for  studying  the  life-history  of  English  words. 
Skeat's  "  Etymological  Dictionary  "  will  be  found  to  be  a 
valuable  and  authoritative  book  of  reference.  Thirdly, 
one  should  assign  himself  the  task  of  making  lists  of  all  the 
words  that  express  various  shades  of  the  same  general  idea. 
Let  him  take,  for  instance,  the  general  idea  expressed  by 


326  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

the  word  see  ;  he  will  at  once  set  down  examine,  gaze,  peer, 
peep,  look,  behold,  espy,  scrutinize,  investigate,  perceive,  sur- 
vey, glance,  catch  a  glimpse,  etc.  He  can  select  other  gen- 
eral words  and  make  similar  groups.  In  these  three  ways 
almost  any  one  can  increase  his  ability  to  distinguish  the 
finer  shades  of  meaning  in  words. 

9.  An  important  word  of  warning  must  here  be  given. 
If  one  would  have  a  large  vocabulary  of  serviceable  words  at 
his  ready  command,  he  must  make  it  a  matter  of  conscience  to 
avoid  slarig,  hackneyed  phrases,  and  the  common  vice  of  "fine 
writing"  It  is  customary  to  warn  the  student  against  these 
things  because  they  are  vulgar.  But  their  vulgarity  is  not 
their  only  fault.  Their  use  tends  to  produce  a  dangerous 
reaction  upon  one's  vocabulary.  The  habitual  use  of  slang, 
trite  locutions,  and  verbal  finery  will  eventually  paralyze 
the  most  vigorous  vocabulary.  These  vulgar  substitutes 
for  real  words  are  merely  counters  and  not  true  coin  to  be 
used  in  exchange  of  thought.  One  cannot  habitually  use 
such  expressions  without  unconsciously  transferring  many 
good  words  in  his  vocabulary  from  the  active  to  the  retired 
list.  Some  people,  for  example,  have  acquired  the  unfor- 
tunate habit  of  expressing  approval  by  saying  that  a  given 
thing  is  "just  perfectly  lovely,"  or  disapproval  by  saying 
that  it  is  "perfectly  horrid."  Any  one  who  has  ever  met 
such  a  person  will  understand  the  insidious  danger  that 
lurks  in  slang,  hackneyed  terms,  and  "fine  writing."  In- 
deed, the  use  of  these  expressions  reacts  upon  one's  mind 
as  well  as  upon  one's  vocabulary.  To  the  man  who  has 
but  a  single  expression  for  approval  or  disapproval,  all 
things  are  likely  to  be  either  good  or  bad,  either  black  or 
white ;  there  can  be  no  intermediate  shades. 

10.  Finally,  in  all  his  writing  and  speaking,  the  student 
should  seek  to  find  the  "inevitable  word," — the  one  word 


HOW  ONE  MAY  IMPROVE  HIS  VOCABULARY   327 

that  will  express  his  meaning  as  no  other  word  can.  He 
should  see  that  every  word  he  uses  makes  an  exact  fit.  It 
should  say  neither  more  nor  less  than  he  means  to  say. 
He  should  remember  that  precision  and  elegance  of  dic- 
tion will  go  a  long  way  toward  giving  literary  value  to  his 
writing.  It  is  largely  to  this  quality  of  inevitableness  that 
our  English  Bible  owes  its  high  literary  value  as  a  model 
of  good  English.  Every  student  should  strive  to  cultivate 
a  "sense  for  words."  Such  a  sense  of  exact  values  in 
words  comes  to  one  as  the  natural  result  of  practice,  con- 
scious attention,  and  constant  interest  in  words.  This  sense 
the  student  of  Composition  should  strive  to  acquire,  and  he 
should  keep  it  alert  and  acute.  It  can  be  made  to  serve  as 
a  touchstone  by  which  to  test  every  word  that  he  uses. 

To  this  brief  discussion  no  better  conclusion  can  be 
given  than  the  advice  offered  by  Professor  A.  S.  Hill,  in 
his  "  Foundations  of  Rhetoric  "  :  "  Other  things  being  equal, 
it  is  obvious  that  the  writer  who  has  most  words  to  choose 
from  is  most  likely  to  find  in  his  assortment  just  the  word 
that  he  needs  at  the  given  moment.  It  is  therefore  worth 
while  for  a  young  writer  to  keep  his  ears  open  while  con- 
versation is  going  on  about  him,  and  his  eyes  open  while 
he  is  reading ;  and  to  note  and  remember  every  word  that 
is  new  to  him  in  itself  or  in  the  meaning  given  it.  He  may 
thus,  while  avoiding  vulgarisms  on  the  one  hand  and  high- 
flown  expressions  on  the  other,  enrich  his  diction  from  the 
racy  speech  of  plain  people  and  the  best  utterances  of  great 
authors,  the  two  sources  of  what  is  most  alive  in  our  lan- 
guage. If  he  is  a  student  of  other  tongues,  whether  ancient 
or  modern,  he  has  at  hand  a  third  means  of  adding  to  his 
stock  of  English.  '  Translation,'  as  Rufus  Choate  is  re- 
ported to  have  said, '  should  be  pursued  to  bring  to  mind  and 
to  employ  all  the  words  you  already  own,  and  to  tax  and 


328 


COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 


torment  invention  and  discovery  and  the  very  deepest  mem- 
ory for  additional,  rich,  and  admirably  expressive  words.' " 


EXERCISES 

I.    Write  a  theme  on  one  of  the  subjects  found  in  Appendix  E. 
II.   Make  a  study  of  the  etymological  derivation  and  the  history  of 
the  following  words  :  — 


abominable 

dahlia 

pagan 

academy 

demagogue 

parasite 

affidavit 

diamond 

ponder 

ambition 

electricity 

prevent 

ammonia 

enthusiasm 

priest 

auctioneer 

geranium 

prophet 

bask 

halibut 

raisin 

biscuit 

incandescent 

sardonic 

blackguard 

infant 

sinecure 

boycott 

ink 

solstice 

cadaverous 

lady 

style 

candidate 

loafer 

tribulation 

capricious 

meander 

trite 

cemetery 

neuralgia 

verse 

church 

nonplus 

volume 

clerk 

orient 

walnut 

criticism 

ostracize 

whiskey 

III.    Take  each  of  the  following  general  words  and  group  about  it  all 
the  words  that  express  different  shades  of  the  same  general  idea :  — 

to  talk 
to  help 
to  see 
to  think 
to  answer 
to  go  up 
to  go  down 
to  go  away 
to  carry 
to  write 


road 

good 

book 

bad 

building 

happy 

dwelling-place 

unhappy 

fear 

beautiful 

to  fear 

ugly 

work 

dress 

to  work 

to  dress 

play 

to  travel 

to  play 

to  walk 

HOW  ONE  MAY  IMPROVE  HIS  VOCABULARY   329 

IV.  Learn  and  point  out  the  exact  meaning  of  each  word  in  the 
following  groups :  — 

1 .  Love,  like. 

2.  Wit,  humor. 

3.  Pair,  couple. 

4.  Talent,  genius. 

5.  Purpose,  propose. 

6.  Healthy,  healthful. 

7.  Possible,  probable. 

8.  Invention,  discovery. 

9.  Valuable,  invaluable. 

10.  Translate,  paraphrase. 

11.  Pupil,  student,  scholar. 

12.  Power,  ability,  capacity. 

13.  Pride,  vanity,  arrogance. 

14.  Criticism,  blame,  censure. 

15.  Decide,  resolve,  determine. 

16.  Perfect,  complete,  finished. 

17.  Fear,  alarm,  fright,  terror. 

18.  Agree,  accede,  acquiesce,  yield. 

19.  Forbearance,  leniency,  clemency. 

20.  Hospital,  dispensary,  sanitarium. 
,21.  Memory,  remembrance,  recollection. 

22.  Cunning,  trickery,  chicane,  fraud. 

23.  Pleasure,  delight,  happiness,  joy. 

24.  Dissipation,  profligacy,  debauchery. 

25.  Aged,  ancient,  antiquated,  obsolete. 

26.  Occupation,  calling,  trade,  profession. 

27.  Amusement,  merriment,  laughter,  derision. 

28.  Education,  instruction,  tuition,  training. 

29.  Wisdom,  knowledge,  information,  erudition. 

30.  Difficulty,  hardship,  obstacle,  hindrance. 

31.  Temper,  disposition,  character,  reputation. 

32.  Home,  domicile,  house,  residence,  mansion. 

33.  Religious,  pious,  devout,  devotional,  holy. 

34.  Plain,  clear,  obvious,  manifest,  apparent,  evident. 

35.  Famous,  prominent,  eminent,  distinguished,  notorious. 

36.  Pity,  compassion,  sympathy,  commiseration,  condolence. 


APPENDICES 


APPENDIX   A 

MECHANICAL  PROCESSES:  THE  MANUSCRIPT,  CAPI- 
TAL  LETTERS,    AND   PUNCTUATION;   EXERCISES 

I.   THE   MANUSCRIPT 

1.  Write  legibly.  It  is  worth  while  to  make  your  manu- 
script neat  and  your  handwriting  legible.  A  slovenly  and 
illegible  manuscript  is  a  stumbling-block  to  any  reader.  It 
is  desirable  that  both  thought  and  construction  shall  stand 
out  as  clearly  in  a  manuscript  as  on  the  printed  page.  A 
reader  wastes  his  mental  energy  whenever  he  is  obliged  to 
spend  it  in  deciphering  a  scrawl.  Illegible  penmanship  is 
a  positive  discourtesy  to  the  reader,  and  it  is  inexcusable 
because  with  a  little  care  almost  any  one  can  make  his 
writing  legible.  Do  not  slant  your  ivriting  too  much.  It 
is  often  possible  for  one  to  make  his  penmanship  legible 
by  making  it  vertical.  Do  not  unduly  extend  loop  letters 
so  that  they  run  into  the  line  above  or  the  line  below. 

Write  proper  names  with  care.    .  Make  capitals  larger  than 
other  letters.     Avoid  flourishes. 

2.  Do  not  crowd  your  writing.  There  is  often  a  tempta- 
tion to  do  this  at  the  end  of  a  line  or  at  the  bottom  of  a 
sheet.  Sometimes  letters  and  words  are  written  too  close 
together.  Leave  sufficient  space  between  words,  and  do 
not  run  two  words  together  as  if  they  formed  a  single  unit. 
Between  sentences  leave  more  space  than  between  words. 
Thus  words  and  sentences  will  stand  out  as  separate  units. 

333 


334  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

On  the  other  hand,  never  leave  a  space  between  two  letters 
of  the  same  word.  Such  a  break  often  occurs  immediately 
after  a  capital. 

3.  Write  on  only  one  side  of  the  paper.  The  convenience 
of  the  reader  and  general  custom  in  the  preparation  of 
manuscripts  have  made  this  practice  necessary. 

4.  Write  the  title  above  the  theme,  and  leave  a  space 
between  the  title  and  the  theme. 

5.  Leave  a  margin  of  about  an  inch  and  a  half.  Good 
Use  calls  for  a  margin  in  all  manuscript  work.  The  margin 
of  themes  is  a  convenient  place  for  the  instructor's  criti- 
cisms. 

6.  Indent  your  paragraphs.  The  first  word  of  each  para- 
graph should  be  indented  about  an  inch. 

7.  Number  the  pages  of  your  manuscript,  and  arrange 
them  in  the  right  order. 

The  foregoing  directions  all  refer  to  matters  of  common 
custom  and  convenience,  and  for  this  reason  uniformity  of 
practice  is  desirable. 

II.   CAPITAL  LETTERS 

The  following  comprehensive  rule  covers  most  of  the 
ordinary  uses  of  capital  letters  :  Capitalize  all  proper  names 
and  adjectives  derived  from  proper  names ;  the  first  word 
of  a  sentence,  the  first  word  in  every  line  of  poetry,  and 
the  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation ;  the  names  of  organi- 
zations, corporations,  political  parties,  and  religious  denomi- 
nations ;  the  names  of  days  and  months  (but  not  of  seasons) ; 
the  names  and  titles  of  God  and  personal  pronouns  used  to 
refer  to  Him;  the  pronoun  /and  the  vocative  interjection 
O ;  the  important  words  in  the  title  of  a  book  or  any  com- 
position (usually  all  the  words  except  articles,  particles, 


APPENDIX   A  335 

demonstratives,  auxiliary  verbs,  and  personal  pronouns  in 
the  possessive  case) ;  and  personal  titles  when  used  with  a 
person's  name,  as  in  the  sentence,  "  The  book  was  written 
by  Captain  Mahan." 


III.   PUNCTUATION 

The  purpose  of  punctuation  is  to  make  the  writer's 
thought  more  clear  to  the  reader.  The  marks  of  punctua- 
tion are  mechanical  devices  quite  as  important  and  useful 
in  helping  the  reader  to  an  immediate  understanding  of  the 
writer's  thought  as  are  the  spacing  of  words  and  the  divi- 
sion of  a  composition  into  paragraphs.  Without  the  aid  of 
these  marks  it  would  often  be  difficult  for  us  to  take  in  at  a 
glance  what  an  author  intends  to  say ;  sometimes  it  might 
even  be  impossible  to  comprehend  his  exact  meaning.  If, 
therefore,  we  would  write  with  such  clearness  that  others 
can  readily  understand  just  what  we  mean  to  say,  it  is 
worth  our  while  to  know  how  to  use  the  marks  of  punctua- 
tion. 

The  art  of  punctuation  is  not  really  very  difficult.  It  is 
to  be  feared  that  many  have  been  frightened  by  lengthy 
treatises  on  the  subject  and  by  a  formidable  array  of  rules 
dealing  with  special  cases.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  writer 
who  wishes  to  punctuate  acceptably  can  help  himself  quite 
as  much  by  the  habit  of  close  observation  as  by  an  attempt 
to  follow  out  elaborately  formulated  rules.  Let  him  observe 
and  note  how  the  marks  of  punctuation  are  used  in  good 
books  and  magazines.  By  the  observation  and  imitation 
of  correct  models  one  can  usually  learn  the  main  require- 
ments of  Good  Use  in  punctuation ;  surely  it  is  only  in 
this  way  that  one  can  master  the  finer  points.  The  student 
who  learns  to  punctuate  by  this  method  will,  after  a  little 


336  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

practice,  point  off  his  sentences  almost  as  naturally  and 
unconsciously  as  he  dots  his  z's  and  crosses  his  /'s. 

A  few  rules,  however,  may  help  us  if  we  do  not  follow 
them  too  blindly ;  for  punctuation  is  not  entirely  a  matter 
of  taste.  It  is  well  to  have  a  body  of  rules  for  study  and 
reference  because  they  furnish  us  with  a  convenient  sum- 
mary of  the  practice  of  the  best  writers.  They  serve  the 
useful  purpose  of  securing  something  like  uniformity. 

In  the  theory  and  practice  of  punctuation  there  has 
been,  during  the  past  century,  a  strong  tendency  toward 
simplification.  Fewer  marks  are  now  used,  and  fewer 
rules  are  needed.  There  has  been  a  wide  acceptance  of 
the  sensible  general  rule  that  marks  of  punctuation  are 
to  be  used  only  when  they  serve  as  aids  to  clearness  and 
to  the  ready  apprehension  of  thought,  or  when  they  can  be 
made  to  contribute  to  the  emphasis  of  the  sentence.  From 
the  standpoint  of  clearness,  it  is  often  quite  as  serious  a 
fault  to  use  too  many  marks  of  punctuation  as  to  use  too 
few.  Certainly,  to  put  them  in  at  the  wrong  places,  where 
they  may  mislead  the  reader,  is  worse  than  to  omit  them 
altogether. 

I.  Sentences.  (a)  Punctuation  has  to  do  almost  en- 
tirely with  the  sentence  and  its  parts.  Every  one  knows 
that  after  a  declarative  sentence,  like  this  one  and  the 
one  which  precedes  it,  a  period  should  be  placed.  For 
imperative  sentences  the  following  rule  will  itself  serve  as 
an  example:  "Put  a  period  after  every  sentence  that  ex- 
presses a  command."  Again,  who  does  not  know  that 
an  interrogation  mark  should  be  put  after  a  question  ?  It 
is  also  customary  to  indicate,  by  an  exclamation  point, 
that  a  sentence  expresses  strong  feeling;  as  when  David 
exclaimed,  "  How  are  the  mighty  fallen  ! "  These  simple 
rules  are  certainly  matters  of  common  knowledge.    When- 


APPENDIX   A  337 

ever  they  are  violated,  the  mistake  is  generally  due  to 
haste  or  carelessness.  We  should  therefore  keep  our  wits 
about  us  and  punctuate  each  sentence  before  we  leave  it. 
(6)  The  semicolon  is  often  used  to  separate  a  series  of 
short  statements  closely  connected  in  meaning.  Note  the 
following  examples :  — 

"  They  have  no  time ;  paper  and  ink  are  not  at  hand ;  they  are  slow 
with  the  pen ;  they  find  writing  a  difficult  and  tedious  task." 

"A  writer  first  jots  down  his  thoughts  on  any  given  subject;  he 
selects  those  that  suit  his  purpose ;  then  he  begins  to  write  his  com- 
position." 

2.  Coordinate  clauses.  (a)  If  the  coordinate  clauses 
of  a  sentence  are  simple  in  form  and  closely  connected  in 
meaning,  they  should  be  separated  only  by  a  comma,  as 
in  the  following  examples  :  — 

"The  horse  ran  away,  but  the  driver  was  uninjured." 
"  There  are  two  ways  in  which  a  violation  of  the  principle  of  Unity 
may  occur,  and  these  two  ways  it  is  well  to  consider  jn  detail." 

Occasionally,  however,  the  connection  may  be  so  close  and  the 
clauses  so  short  as  to  render  the  comma  unnecessary,  as  in  the  follow- 
ing sentence :  "  The  horse  was  injured  and  the  carriage  demolished." 

(5)  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  connection  between 
coordinate  clauses  is  somewhat  loose,  or  when  they  con- 
tain dependent  members  set  off  by  commas,  they  should 
be  separated  by  semicolons.  The  following  sentences  will 
serve  as  examples  :  — 

"  The  circumstances  of  a  novel,  which  after  all  are  not  essential,  may 
be  imaginary  ;  but  the  description  of  the  rise  and  progress  of  the  action, 
which  is  the  substance  of  the  novel,  may  be  real." 

"  Fiction,  therefore,  has  been  invented  and  cultivated  to  supply  the 
wants  of  man,  and  is  necessary,  just  like  tea  or  coffee  or  any  other  nutri- 
tious stimulant ;  and  true  to  its  character,  it  varies  its  form  to  suit  the 
circumstances  and  tastes  of  each  period  of  life." 


338  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

"Imagination  is  an  intellectual  process  common  to  philosophy  and 
art ;  but  in  each  it  is  allied  with  different  processes  and  directed  to  dif- 
ferent ends;  and  hence,  although  the  'Principia'  demanded  an  imagi- 
nation of  not  less  vivid  and  sustained  power  than  was  demanded  by 
'Othello,1  it  would  be  very  false  psychology  to  infer  that  the  mind 
of  Newton  was  competent  to  the  creation  of  t  Othello,'  or  the  mind  of 
Shakespeare  capable  of  producing  the  'Principia.'  They  were  specifi- 
cally different  minds ;  their  works  were  specifically  different." 

(c)  The  colon  is  the  mark  of  anticipation  and  expectancy. 
When  used  in  the  body  of  a  sentence,  generally  between 
two  coordinate  clauses,  it  indicates  to  the  reader  that  some- 
thing is  to  follow  by  way  of  example,  explanation,  or  appo- 
sition of  thought.  Instances  of  this  use  of  the  colon  can 
be  found  in  any  of  the  four  paragraphs  immediately  pre- 
ceding this.  The  colons  in  the  following  quotation  lead 
the  reader  to  expect  something  that  will  explain  or  amplify 
the  thought :  — 

"  Dull  companions  are  the  buffers  of  society :  they  prevent  the  more 
active  and  impetuous  spirits  from  coming  into  collision.  They  are  the 
shadows  of  society :  they  make  the  lights  stand  out  in  greater  relief 
and  brilliancy." 

3.  Subordinate  clauses.  (a)  Subordinate  clauses  are 
either  substantive,  relative,  or  adverbial  clauses,  according 
as  they  perform  the  functions  of  noun,  adjective,  or  ad- 
verb. Usually  a  single  substantive  clause  needs  no  mark 
of  punctuation.  Very  rarely,  when  a  long  substantive 
clause  is  used  as  subject,  it  is  necessary,  for  the  sake  of 
clearness,  to  place  a  comma  just  before  the  predicate  verb ; 
as,  for  example,  —  "  That  Chaucer  should  not  have  found 
occasion  to  ride  across  from  Milan  to  Padua  for  the  sake 
of  seeing  the  most  famous  literary  man  of  the  day,  is 
incredible."  When  several  substantive  clauses  are  used 
together,  as  in  the  following  sentences,  they  are  generally 
separated  by  a  comma  or  commas  :  — 


APPENDIX   A  339 

"  We  are  Knights  of  Labor  because  we  believe  that  law  and  order 
should  prevail,  and  that  both  should  be  founded  in  equity." 

"  Let  us  suppose  that  you  have  studied  one  or  more  of  these  stand- 
ard authors,  and  that  you  are  still  anxious  to  extend  your  acquaintance 
with  books." 

(b)  Relative  clauses  are  of  two  kinds,  restrictive  and 
non-restrictive.  A  restrictive  relative  clause  is  inseparably 
connected  with  its  antecedent.  It  is  used,  like  the  demon- 
strative adjectives  this,  that,  these,  those,  to  point  out  a 
particular  person  or  thing  or  group.  By  specifying  an 
individual  object  or  group  and  excluding  all  other  objects 
that  belong  to  the  same  class,  such  a  relative  clause  actu- 
ally restricts  the  meaning  of  its  antecedent.  All  the  rela- 
tive clauses  that  answer  to  this  description  are  said  to  be 
restrictive,  and  should  not  be  set  off  by  commas.  Each 
of  the  two  preceding  sentences  contains  an  example.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  non-restrictive  relative  clause,  which 
usually  adds  to  the  antecedent  some  descriptive,  explana- 
tory, or  incidental  fact  or  circumstance,  should  always  be 
set  off  by  a  comma  or  commas.  The  relative  clause  in  the 
foregoing  sentence  is  non-restrictive  or  explanatory.  The 
difference  in  the  punctuation  of  these  two  kinds  of  clauses 
is  necessary  to  indicate  the  difference  in  meaning.  The 
sentence,  "Sailors  who  are  superstitious  will  not  embark 
on  Friday,"  does  not  express  the  same  meaning  when  the 
relative  clause  is  made  non-restrictive,  — "  Sailors,  who 
are  superstitious,  will  not  embark  on  Friday." 

{c)  Adverbial  clauses  also  are  occasionally  restrictive ; 
that  is  to  say,  they  are  sometimes  inseparably  connected 
with  the  rest  of  the  sentence.  In  the  three  sentences  that 
follow,  no  commas  should  be  used  to  separate  the  depend- 
ent clause  from  the  independent  clause :  "  I  cannot  leave 
until  my  friend  arrives."     "  I  will  follow  you  whitherso- 


340  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

ever  you  go."  "We  cannot  succeed  unless  we  are  reso- 
lute and  persevering."  Most  adverbial  clauses,  however, 
are  non-restrictive,  and  should  usually  be  set  off  from  the 
independent  clause  and  from  each  other  by  means  of 
commas.  When  the  adverbial  clause,  whether  restrictive 
or  non-restrictive,  stands  first,  it  should  generally  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  independent  clause  by  a  comma.  The 
following  sentences  will  show  how  commas  are  used  to 
set  off  adverbial  clauses :  — 

"  If  you  cannot  read  all  the  great  masterpieces,  read  at  least  one." 

"  When  you  read  a  book  written  by  a  person  you  know,  you  are  far 
more  interested  in  it  than  in  a  stranger's  book." 

"  I  am  willing  to  listen  to  the  gentleman's  arguments,  although  I  feel 
sure  that  I  can  never  accept  his  conclusions." 

"  When  we  turn  to  the  graceful  structure  at  whose  portals  we  stand, 
and  when  the  airy  outline  of  its  curves  of  beauty  is  contrasted  with  the 
overarching  vault  of  heaven  above  and  the  ever  moving  flood  of 
waters  beneath,  we  are  irresistibly  moved  to  exclaim,  '  What  hath  man 
wrought ! ' " 

"  But  if  you  are  active  and  earnest,  if  you  wish  to  succeed  in  life,  if 
you  covet  the  title  of  rational  creatures,  if  you  have  the  sense  to  appre- 
ciate good  advice  and  the  resolution  to  carry  it  out,  you  will  read 
according  to  a  well-defined  and  rigid  method." 

(d)  The  semicolon  is  used  to  separate  subordinate  clauses, 
or  even  phrases,  which  have  a  common  dependence :  — 

"  He  knew  that  the  English  nation  was  discontented  with  the  way  in 
which  the  war  had  hitherto  been  conducted  ;  that  nothing  but  rapid  and 
splendid  success  could  revive  the  enthusiasm  of  his  friends  or  quell  the 
spirit  of  his  enemies  ;  and  that  a  defeat  could  scarcely  be  more  injuri- 
ous to  his  fame  and  to  his  interests  than  a  languid  and  indecisive 
campaign." 

"  The  true  method  seems  to  consist  of  two  steps  :  to  read  first  the 
one  or  two  good  standard  works  in  each  department  of  literature  ;  and 
then  to  confine  our  reading  to  that  department  which  suits  the  particular 
bent  of  our  minds." 


APPENDIX   A  341 

4.  Phrases  and  words.  The  comma  is  used  in  the  fol- 
lowing cases : — 

(a)  To  separate  a  participial  phrase  from  the  context, 
except  when  it  is  used  instead  of  a  restrictive  clause.  The 
participial  phrase  may  be  used  at  the  beginning,  at  the 
end,  or  in  the  body  of  the  sentence,  or  it  may  be  used 
absolutely :  — 

"  In  treating  of  the  reading  of  books,  we  do  not  refer  to  all  kinds  of 
books." 

"  Do  not  jump  about  from  book  to  book,  trying  to  read  what  any 
would-be  judge  recommends  to  you." 

"  Let  us,  in  considering  this  subject,  look  at  it  from  every  point  of 
view." 

"  Everything  being  now  ready,  the  army  began  its  long  and  weari- 
some march." 

Of  course,  no  comma  is  used  to  set  off  a  participial  phrase  that  is  used 
restrictively  :  "  I  refer  to  all  books  relating  to  history  and  biography." 

(b)  To  separate  words  or  phrases  used  in  a  series :  — 

"  Guided  by  this  definition,  we  will  include  books  relating  to  mental 
philosophy,  history,  biography,  poetry,  and  fiction." 

"  A  participial  phrase  may  come  at  the  beginning,  at  the  end,  or  in 
the  body  of  a  sentence." 

(c)  To  separate  words  or  phrases  that  are  contrasted  with 
each  other :  — 

"  There  are  few  voices  in  the  world,  but  many  echoes.*' 
"  We  live  in  deeds,  not  years  ;  in  thoughts,  not  breaths ;  in  feelings, 
not  in  figures  on  a  dial." 

(d)  To  separate  from  the  context  a  word  or  phrase  used 
in  apposition :  — 

"Antonio  Gallenga,  the  Italian  publicist  and  patriot,  was  born  in 
1810." 

(e)  To  separate  transposed  and  parenthetical  expressions 
from  the  rest  of  the  sentence :  — 


342  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

"  In  course  of  time,  we  can  almost  imagine,  it  will  be  difficult  to  find 
a  man  who  has  not  been  guilty  of  authorship." 

"  The  Italian  poet  Dante,  on  a  certain  occasion,  went  to  a  street  to 
see  some  grand  procession." 

Sometimes  parenthetical  elements  are  setofFby  dashes  or  parentheses. 

(/)  To  separate  from  the  context  adverbs  used  indepen- 
dently at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  and  conjunctive 
adverbs  like  however,  moreover,  then :  — 

"  Happily,  this  country  is  not  a  legitimate  theatre  for  the  political 
ambitions  of  European  sovereigns." 

"  True  oratory,  then,  is  the  art  of  convincing  and  persuading  men." 

(g)  To  separate  from  the  context  a  word  or  phrase  used 
in  direct  address:  "And  now,  my  friends,  let  us  come  to. 
the  paramount  issue." 

(/*)  Sometimes  to  indicate  that  a  word  is  omitted:  "  To 
err  is  human ;  to  forgive,  divine." 

(z)  To  introduce  a  short,  informal  quotation:  "Christ 
said,  '  Follow  me.'  " 

5.  The  hyphen  is  used  between  the  parts  of  many  com- 
pound words.  It  would  be  hard  to  formulate  any  very  help- 
ful rule.  Compound  words  which  have  long  been  in  use, 
and  which  are  no  longer  thought  of  as  compound,  are  usu- 
ally written  without  a  hyphen.  The  following  pairs  of 
compound  words  may  suggest  the  difference  in  usage : 
clipboard,  ap-shaped ;  blacksmith,  black-eyed ;  semicolon, 
semi-civilized ;  honeycomb,  honey-bee ;  steamboat,  steam- 
heating.  The  hyphen  is  also  used  to  mark  the  divisions  of 
a  word  at  the  end  of  a  written  or  printed  line.  When  thus 
used,  the  hyphen  should  come  between  two  syllables  of  the 
divided  word.  A  monosyllable  should  not  be  divided.  Nor 
should  a  syllable  of  only  one  letter  be  allowed  to  stand  at 
the  end  or  at  the  beginning  of  a  line. 


APPENDIX   A  343 

6.  The  apostrophe  is  used  in  forming  the  possessive 
case.  The  apostrophe  and  the  s  should  be  placed  after 
singular  nouns  and  after  the  few  plurals  which  do  not  end 
in  s,  as  in  George's  and  mens.  This  rule  holds  even 
when  the  singular  noun  ends  in  s,  as  in  "  Mr.  Jones's  estate." 
In  order,  however,  to  avoid  disagreeable  sibilance,  the  s 
should  be  omitted  after  the  apostrophe  in  forming  the  pos- 
sessive of  such  words  as  Jesus,  Crassus,  Perseus.  To  form 
the  possessive  case  of  plural  nouns  ending  in  s,  only  the 
apostrophe  is  used,  as  in  "  the  students'  petition."  Another 
use  of  the  apostrophe  is  to  indicate  the  omission  of  a  letter 
or  letters,  as  in  doesn't,  can't,  o'clock. 

7.  Quotations.  The  various  examples  quoted  in  this 
chapter  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  ordinary  use  of  quotation 
marks  ("  ").  Only  the  words  quoted  should  be  inclosed. 
In  dialogue  such  expressions  as  he  exclaimed,  said  he,  he 
thought,  form  no  part  of  the  quotation.  When  the  quota- 
tion extends  through  several  paragraphs,  marks  should  be 
used  at  the  beginning  of  the  quotation,  at  the  beginning  of 
each  paragraph,  and  at  the  end  of  the  quotation.  It  may 
here  be  noted  that  the  colon  is  often  used  to  introduce 
a  long,  formal  quotation ;  for  an  example  of  this  use  see 
page  327.  Single  marks  (' ')  are  used  to  indicate  a  quotation 
within  a  quotation,  as  in  the  example  under  4,  (z),  on  the 
opposite  page. 

8.  Abbreviations  and  numerals  are  generally  avoided  in 
formal  composition.  There  are,  however,  a  number  of 
abbreviations  which  form  exceptions  to  this  general  rule. 
The  following  are  in  common  use :  etc.,  i.e.,  e.g.,  viz., 
a.d.,  B.C.,  a.m.,  p.m.;  Mr.,  Mrs.,  Messrs.,  Dr.,  Capt.,  Rev., 
and  similar  abbreviations,  when  used  before  the  names  of 
persons;  Jr.,  Esq.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  and  like  abbreviations, 
when  used  after  proper  names;  inst.,  ult,  prox.,  P.S.,  as 


344  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC 

used  in  letters.  Numbers  should  usually  be  spelled  out. 
Numerals,  however,  are  commonly  used  in  dates,  addresses, 
and  in  numbers  containing  more  than  three  digits. 

In  regard  to  the  foregoing  mechanical  processes,  we 
should  be  on  our  guard,  as  students  of  Composition,  against 
a  few  common  pitfalls.  First,  it  is  well  to  remember  that 
punctuation  is  an  essential  part  of  composition.  We  must 
know  how  to  use  the  marks  of  punctuation,  and  we  must 
not  forget  or  neglect  to  put  them  in.  The  composition  of 
a  sentence  is  not  complete  until  the  proper  marks  of  punc- 
tuation have  been  inserted.  Secondly,  punctuation  is  in- 
tended to  help  the  reader.  A  writer,  therefore,  may  defeat 
his  purpose  by  using  too  many  marks  or  by  misplacing 
them.  Thirdly,  each  mark  has  its  legitimate  uses,  and  one 
mark  should  not  be  made  to  perform  the  functions  of 
another.  It  is  easy,  for  instance,  to  fall  into  the  habit  of 
using  the  comma  or  the  dash  almost  exclusively.  The  dash 
is  perhaps  the  worst  offender.  It  has,  of  course,  its  legiti- 
mate uses,  which  can  best  be  learned  by  observation. 
Fourthly,  we  cannot  depend  entirely  upon  rules,  nor  should 
we  follow  them  too  blindly.  Yet  punctuation  is  not  a  mere 
matter  of  taste.  If  we  would  punctuate  well,  we  should 
exercise  our  judgment,  and  seek,  by  observation,  imitation, 
and  practice,  to  gain  a  mastery  of  the  best  usage. 

IV.     EXERCISES 

I.  Take  at  random  a  page  of  your  text-book,  and  endeavor  to  justify 
and  explain  the  use  of  each  mark  of  punctuation. 

II.  Take  up  one  of  the  carefully  printed  popular  magazines,  such  as 
the  Atlantic  Monthly,  the  Century  Magazine,  or  Harper's  Magazine, 
and  go  over  each  page  with  care,  noting  how  the  various  marks  are 
used  in  order  to  make  the  thought  both  clear  and  emphatic.  Justify, 
if  possible,  the  use  of  each  mark. 


APPENDIX   A  345 

III.  Make  every  written  exercise  in  all  your  studies  an  exercise  in 
punctuation.  Punctuate  with  care  all  your  written  work,  —  letters, 
themes,  class-room  exercises,  reports,  examination  papers,  etc.  Above 
all,  avoid  the  common  mistake  of  using  too  many  marks. 

IV.  Let  the  instructor  read  to  his  class  a  paragraph  or  two  from 
some  book  or  magazine  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  indicate  where 
marks  of  punctuation  should  be  used.  The  students  will  write  the  exer- 
cise thus  dictated,  putting  in  such  marks  of  punctuation  as  they  think 
necessary.  Let  each  student  then  compare  the  punctuation  of  the  pas- 
sage with  that  of  the  original.  Discuss  such  cases  as  admit  of  several 
different  ways  of  punctuation. 

V.  Punctuate  the  following,  and  insert  capital  letters  wherever  they 
should  be  used.  Justify  the  use  of  each  mark  and  capital  letter  that  you 
insert :  — 

i.  Adhering  sir  as  I  do  to  this  policy  as  well  as  for  the  reasons  I  have 
just  given  I  think  this  new  project  to  be  neither  prudent  nor  practicable 

2.  I  think  that  I  am  from  these  journals  justified  in  the  sixth  and 
last  resolution  which  is  as  follows 

3.  Spain  in  her  provinces  is  perhaps  not  so  well  obeyed  as  you  are 
in  yours  she  complies  too  she  submits  she  watches  the  times 

4.  Ireland  before  the  English  conquest  though  never  governed  by  a 
despotic  power  had  no  parliament 

5.  But  the  reconciliation  was  on  the  surface  only  underneath  the  old 
hatred  smouldered  ready  to  burst  forth  into  flame 

6.  The  question  is  whether  you  will  choose  to  abide  by  a  profitable 
experience  or  a  mischievous  theory  whether  you  choose  to  build  on 
imagination  or  fact  whether  you  prefer  enjoyment  or  hope  satisfaction 
in  your  subjects  or  discontent 

7.  Chester  civilized  as  well  as  Wales  has  demonstrated  that  freedom 
and  not  servitude  is  the  cure  of  anarchy  as  religion  and  not  atheism  is 
the  true  remedy  for  superstition 

8.  By  means  of  the  three  principles  of  unity  coherence  and  emphasis 
then  the  writer  is  able  to  govern  the  selection  the  arrangement  and  the 
proportion  of  the  whole  composition 

9.  But  the  population  of  this  country  the  great  and  growing  popula- 
tion though  a  very  important  consideration  will  lose  much  of  its  weight 
if  not  combined  with  other  circumstances 

10.  Flowers  brighter  than  the  rose  bloomed  in  the  blackest  of  the 
heath  for  Emily  out  of  a  sullen  hollow  in  a  livid  hillside  her  mind  could 


346  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

make  an  Eden  she  found  in  the  bleak  solitude  many  and  dear  delights 
and  not  the  least  and  best  loved  was  liberty  Liberty  was  the  breath 
of  Emilys  nostrils  without  it  she  perished  the  change  from  her  own 
home  to  a  school  and  from  her  own  very  noiseless  very  secluded  but 
unrestricted  and  unartificial  life  to  one  of  disciplined  routine  though 
under  the  kindest  auspices  was  what  she  failed  in  enduring 

1 1 .  Wondering  to  whom  this  odd  tent  could  belong  I  advanced  till 
I  was  close  before  it  when  I  found  that  it  consisted  of  two  tilts  like 
those  of  wagons  placed  upon  the  ground  and  fronting  each  other  con- 
nected behind  by  a  sail  or  large  piece  of  canvas  which  was  but  partly 
drawn  across  the  top  upon  the  ground  in  the  intervening  space  was  a 
fire  over  which  supported  by  a  kind  of  iron  crowbar  hung  a  caldron 

12.  In  every  improved  society  the  farmer  is  generally  nothing  but  a 
farmer  the  manufacturer  nothing  but  a  manufacturer  the  labor  too  which 
is  necessary  to  produce  any  one  complete  manufacture  is  almost  always 
divided  among  a  great  number  of  hands 

13.  I  will  arise  and  go  to  my  father  and  will  say  unto  him  father  I 
have  sinned  against  heaven  and  before  thee  and  am  no  more  worthy  to 
be  called  thy  son  make  me  as  one  of  thy  hired  servants  and  he  arose  and 
came  to  his  father  but  when  he  was  yet  a  great  way  off  his  father  saw 
him  and  had  compassion  and  ran  and  fell  on  his  neck  and  kissed  him 

14.  Shall  California  come  in  for  myself  upon  my  individual  judgment 
and  conscience  I  answer  yes  for  my-self  as  an  instructed  representative 
of  one  of  the  states  of  that  one  of  the  states  which  is  soonest  to  be 
pressed  in  commercial  and  political  rivalry  by  the  new  common-wealth 
I  answer  yes  let  California  come  in  every  new  state  whether  it  come 
from  the  east  or  from  the  west  every  new  state  coming  from  whatever 
part  of  the  continent  it  may  is  always  welcome 

15.  Not  the  Spartans  at  Thermopylae  nor  the  old  guard  at  Waterloo 
presented  a  spectacle  of  sublimer  heroism  than  that  handful  of  English- 
men surrounded  by  savage  foes  more  than  a  hundred  to  one  when 
the  last  cartridge  was  in  their  revolvers  standing  up  in  full  view  of 
their  slayers  reverently  baring  their  heads  and-  singing  God  save  the 
queen 

16.  We  have  a  fine  moon-light  night  for  riding  on  says  Esmond. 
Frank  we  may  reach  Castlewood  in  time  yet.  All  the  way  along  they 
made  inquiries  at  the  post  houses  when  a  tall  young  gentleman  in  a 
gray  suit  with  a  light  brown  periwig  just  the  color  of  my  lords  had  been 
seen  to  pass  he  had  set  off  at  six  that  morning  and  we  at  three  in  the 


APPENDIX   A  347 

afternoon  he  rode  almost  as  quickly  as  we  had  done  he  was  seven  hours 
ahead  of  us  still  when  we  reached  the  last  stage 

17.  Four  years  ago  California  a  Mexican  province  scarcely  inhabited 
and  quite  unexplored  was  unknown  even  to  our  usually  moderate  desires 
except  by  a  harbor  capacious  and  tranquil  which  only  statesmen  then 
foresaw  would  be  useful  in  the  oriental  commerce  of  a  far  distant  if  not 
merely  chimerical  future 

18.  What  appearance  on  the  page  of  history  would  a  record  like  this 
make  in  the  month  of  January  in  the  year  of  our  lord  and  saviour  1824 
while  all  European  Christendom  beheld  with  cold  unfeeling  apathy  the 
unexampled  wrongs  and  inexpressible  misery  of  christian  Greece  a 
proposition  was  made  in  the  congress  of  the  United  states  to  send  a 
messenger  to  Greece  to  inquire  into  her  state  and  condition  with  an 
expression  of  our  good  wishes  and  our  sympathies  and  it  was  rejected 

19.  Spinoza  isnt  a  man  of  action  his  heroism  such  as  it  is  is  the 
heroism  of  contemplation  he  is  not  always  let  me  tell  you  in  his  religious 
mood  and  when  he  is  not  he  appears  as  a  cynical  observer  of  the  vanity 
of  mortal  passions  but  as  a  religious  thinker  he  is  no  cynic  unswervingly 
he  turns  from  the  world  of  finite  hopes  and  joys  patiently  he  renounces 
every  sort  of  worldly  comfort  even  the  virtue  he  seeks  is  not  the  virtue 
of  the  active  man 

20.  Crossing  the  bridge  we  now  proceed  to  the  left  through  Church 
st.  from  the  end  of  which  a  flight  of  190  steps  ascends  to  Saint  Marys 
church  where  some  traces  of  the  original  Norman  work  may  still  be 
distinguished  a  little  to  the  right  lie  the  picturesque  Ruins  of  Whitby 
abbey  originally  founded  in  the  7th  cent,  but  dating  in  it's  present  form 
from  the  12th  cent. 


APPENDIX    B 


SPELLING 


The  words  in  the  following  list *  are  frequently  misspelled  even  by 
fairly  good  spellers  :  — 


accidentally.     Not  accidently. 

accommodate .    Two  c's  and  two  nis. 

acknowledgment.     Cf.  judgment. 

all  right.  There  is  no  such  word 
as  alright. 

arrange.     Not  arrainge. 

athletics.  Three  syllables  ;  do  not 
insert  e  after  the  first. 

balance.     Only  one  /. 

battalion.     Two  ^'s,  as  in  battle. 

believe.  The  proper  digraph,  ei  or 
ie,  can  often  be  determined  by 
use  of  the  keyword  Alice :  that  is, 
i  follows  /,  e  follows  c:  believe, 
receive,  etc. 

benefited.     Only  one  t. 

business.     Not  buisness. 

Christian.  That  the  i  precedes  the 
a  can  be  determined  by  the  pro- 
nunciation:  i—y. 

column. 

criticise.     Not  -ize. 


descendant.     Not  -ent. 

describe,  description.  The  prefix  is 
de;  if  it  were  dis,  we  should  have 
two  s%  as  the  root  is  scribe ;  be- 
sides, dis  indicates  separation,  an 
idea  that  is  not  in  the  word. 

despair.    See  describe. 

develop,  development.  There  should 
be  no  e  immediately  after  p. 

dilapidated.  The  prefix  is  di  (same 
as  dis),  not  de. 

disappear,  disappearance.  A  sepa- 
ration of  the  word  disappear  into 
its  two  elements,  dis  and  appear, 
will  show  at  once  that  there  is  no 
reason  for  two  s's. 

disappoint,  disappointment.  See 
disappear.   . 

dormitory.     Not  dormatory. 

eighth. 

envelop.     A  verb. 

envelope.    A  noun. 


1  About  two-thirds  of  the  words  in  this  list,  as  well  as  the  remarks  that  accom- 
pany them,  have  been  taken,  by  permission,  from  the  list  of  misspelled  words  com- 
piled by  Professor  A.  G.  Newcomer  for  his  "  Elements  of  Rhetoric,"  pages  283-286 
(Henry  Holt  &  Company).  About  thirty  words  have  been  added  to  Professor 
Newcomer's  list. 

348 


APPENDIX   B 


349 


equipped. 

etc.  An  abbreviation  of  et  cetera ; 
therefore  not  ect. 

February.  Not  to  be  pronounced 
or  spelled  Febuary. 

forcible. 

forty. 

grandeur. 

hers.     Not  her^s. 

huge.  Not  to  be  spelled  hugh,  after 
the  manner  of  the  proper  name 
Hugh. 

humorous.  From  humor;  therefore 
not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
physiological  term  humerus. 

imagine.     One  m,  as  in  image. 

independent.     Not  -ant. 

indispensable.     Not  -idle. 

inseparable.  Not  inseperable.  See 
separate. 

irrelevant.  There  is  no  such  word 
as  irrevelant. 

its.  There  is  no  apostrophe  in  the 
possessive  form;  ifs  is  a  con- 
traction for  it  is. 

judgment.  Judgement  is  an  anti- 
quated form.  The  simpler  spell- 
ing should  be  preferred. 

laboratory.  Five  syllables  ;  do  not 
omit  the  first  o ;  note  the  root, 
labor. 

led.  Past  tense  of  lead;  not  like 
the  past  tense  of  read. 

lose.  Lose  does  not  conform  to 
the  spelling  of  choose ;  loose  is  a 
different  word,  with  a  hissing  s. 

manufacture.  Not  mani-  or  mana- ; 
note  the  root,  manu,  from  the 
Latin  noun,  manus. 


mimicking.  The  k  is  inserted 
before  e,  i,  and  y,  to  preserve  c 
hard.     Cf.  picnicking. 

near-by.  An  attributive  adjective. 
Not  nearby ',  after  the  manner  of 
nearly. 

necessary.  When  c  is  doubled,  the 
first  c  is  pronounced  like  k,  as  in 
flaccid,  accident. 

noticeable.  The  e  must  be  retained 
to  preserve  c  soft  before  a.  The 
great  difficulty  is  to  remember 
whether  the  suffix  is  able  or  ible ; 
this  must  simply  be  remembered, 
as  there  is  no  rule.  When  the 
suffix  is  idle,  the  e  following  c  is 
dropped  according  to  the  rule  for 
silent  final  e :  forcible. 

occasion.  Double  s  only  after  short 
a,  as  in  passion. 

occasionally.  Not  occasionly,  for 
ly  is  added  to  the  adjective  form. 
So  also  accidentally,  incidentally. 
There  must  be  two  /'s,  one 
belonging  to  the  adjective,  one 
to  the  suffix. 

occurred.     Two  cJs  and  two  r's. 

o'clock.  The  apostrophe  should 
not  be  omitted. 

one's.  This  possessive  pronoun 
requires  an  apostrophe. 

opportunity. 

origin,  original.  Not  origion;  not 
origional.  Careful  pronunciation 
will  fix  the  noun,  while  the  adjec- 
tive, by  being  referred  to  the 
noun,  can  be  kept  distinct  from 
such  words  as  region,  religion. 

ours.     Not  oufs. 


350 


COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 


partner.  Not  to  be  pronounced  or 
spelled  pardner. 

passable.  "  The  roads  are  pass- 
able.'''' Passable  should  not  be 
confounded  with  the  rare  word 
passible,  which  has  a  very  dif- 
ferent meaning. 

perform. 

perseverance. 

pervade. 

picnicking.     See  mimicking. 

precede.  "  To  go  before."  The 
ending  -ceed  occurs  only  in  ex- 
ceed, proceed,  and  succeed. 

preparation. 

principal.  Adjective,  meaning 
chief.  Also  a  noun,  used  in  the 
sense  of  that  which  (he  who)  is 
chief:  as,  the  principal  of  a 
school ;  the  principal  of  a  note, 
as  opposed  to  the  interest. 

principle.  Noun  only  ;  as  a  prin- 
ciple of  action  ;  the  principles  of 
Rhetoric. 

privilege. 

proceed.     "  To  go  on.11 

professor.  Prefix  pro  —  no  reason 
for  two/'s. 

pursue. 

receive.     See  believe. 

recommend.  Only  one  c ;  the  prefix 
is  re. 

rhythm. 

seize.     French,  saisir. 


separate,  separation.     The  second 

syllable   can   be   determined  by 

association  with    compare,  pre- 
pare, preparation. 
siege.     French,  siege. 
similar.     No  i  after  /.     Note  that 

that  there  is  no  y  sound,  as  in 

familiar. 
sophomore.    Not  sophmore.    Three 

syllables,  not  two. 
stationary.      Adjective,     meaning 

at  rest. 
stationery.    Noun,  meaning  writing 

materials. 
superintendent.     Not  -ant. 
surprise.      Not   -ize.      Not  to  be 

pronounced  or  spelled  supprise. 
temperament.     Four  syllables, 
theirs.     Not  theirs. 
together.     No  hyphen  ;  no  letter  a. 
too.    Not  to  be  carelessly  written 

to. 
truly.     No  e. 
twelfth, 
until.     The  /  is  doubled  only  in  the 

monosyllable  till. 
village.     No  i  after  /.     There  is  no 

y  sound  as  in  familiar. 
villain.     Hi  preceded  a,  we  should 

have  ay  sound  as  in  Christian. 
volume. 

whether.     Not  wheather. 
writing.     One/.     (See  2,  below.) 
yours.     Not  your's. 


The  following  suggestions,  made  by  Professor  Newcomer,  will  also 
be  found  useful. 

1.  Any  tendency  toward  simplification  is  to  be  encouraged,  and 
accordingly  the  following  rules  are  commended  for  observance :  — 


APPENDIX    B  351 

Reject  *?  after  g  in  judgment,  acknowledgment,  abridgment,  lodgment. 

Drop  final  me  in  program,  gram,  etc. 

Drop  final  te  in  quartet,  quintet,  sextet. 

Substitute  e  for  the  diphthongs  ce  and  ce  when  they  are  pronounced 
like  ^  :  esthetic,  fetid. 

When  two  spellings  are  in  use,  select  the  simpler:  wilful,  fulfil, 
duluess,  woolen,  story,  develop,  ax. 

2.  Uncertain  spellers  find  much  trouble  with  double  consonants.  It 
may  be  worth  while  to  call  their  attention  to  a  principle  that  is  frequently 
overlooked  ;  namely,  that  a  single  consonant  is  regularly  (there  are  many 
exceptions)  associated  with  a  preceding  long  vowel,  a  double  consonant 
with  a  short  vowel.  Thus,  mate  gives  mated ;  mat  gives  tnalted ;  robe, 
robing ;  rob,  robbing ;  dine,  diner,  dinner  ;  write,  writing,  written. 


APPENDIX   C 

I.   DIRECTIONS   FOR   THEMES 

Please  observe  the  following  rules :  — 

i.  Use  "theme-paper."  2  All  themes  should  be  written 
on  paper  of  uniform  size  approved  by  the  instructor.  This 
is  a  matter  of  great  convenience  to  the  teacher  whose  duty- 
it  is  to  look  over  a  large  number  of  exercises.  Ruled  paper, 
ten  by  eight  inches,  has  been  found  to  be  a  convenient  size. 

2.  Use  black  ink. 

3.  Write  legibly. 

4.  Write  on  one  side  only. 

5.  On  the  left  side  of  each  page  leave  the  margin  indi- 
cated by  the  red  line.  Do  not  crowd  your  writing  at  the 
end  of  the  line  or  at  the  top  or  the  bottom  of  the  page. 

6.  Number  the  pages  of  your  theme. 

7.  Fold  the  paper  once  lengthwise,  and  on  the  outside 
sheet  write,  at  the  place  indicated,  the  title  of  your  theme, 
your  name,  and  the  date  on  which  the  theme  is  due. 

8.  Each  theme  will  be  carefully  examined  by  the  in- 
structor in  charge  and  its  faults  will  be  indicated  in  the 
margin.  On  receiving  his  theme  the  student  will  at  once 
make  the  indicated  corrections  and  return  the  revised  copy 
before  the  beginning  of  the  next  recitation.  In  revising 
his  theme  the  student  should  not  erase  or  obliterate  either 

1  Many  teachers  will  doubtless  find  it  more  convenient  to  have  their  students 
use  "  theme-books."  A  blank  book,  ten  by  eight  inches,  with  stiff  covers,  makes  a 
good  theme-book.  In  such  a  book  all  the  student's  work  for  the  term  can  be  kept 
together.  The  blank  pages  opposite  each  theme  may  be  used  for  the  student's 
revision  or  corrections. 

352 


APPENDIX   C  353 

his  original  language  or  the  criticism  of  the  instructor. 
When  he  is  required  to  rewrite  his  theme,  he  should  hand 
in  both  the  original  and  the  rewritten  copy. 

9.  Themes  should  be  handed  in  promptly  on  the  date 
and  at  the  hour  designated  by  the  instructor.  Any  irregu- 
larity in  this  respect  may  seriously  affect  the  student's 
grade. 

II.    INSTRUCTOR'S   MARKS 

Note.  —  Not  all  these  marks  are  likely  to  be  needed  in  the  criticism 
of  any  given  theme.  Therefore,  since  only  a  few  of  them  will  ordi- 
narily be  applied  to  the  work  of  any  one  student,  no  one  need  be  con- 
fused or  embarrassed  by  the  large  number  of  these  arbitrary  symbols. 
Each  student  should  learn  the  meaning  of  those  marks  which  have  been 
used  in  the  criticism  of  his  themes.  The  teacher,  in  reading  a  large 
number  of  themes,  will  find  some  use  for  every  one  of  the  following 
marks. 

A.  Ambiguous. 

Ant.     The  antecedent  needs  attention. 

B.  This  expresses  a  meaning  that  you  do  not  intend. 

C.  Clearness  violated.     Make  your  meaning  perfectly  clear. 

cap.  Capital  letters  are  misused  or  not  used  at  all.     See  page  334. 

C.  I.  Consult  the  instructor. 

C.  s.  Faulty  coherence  of  the  sentence. 

C.  p.  Faulty  coherence  of  the  paragraph. 

C.  t.  Faulty  coherence  of  the  whole  theme. 

D.  Consult  the  dictionary. 

d.  w.    Word  divided  wrongly  at  the  end  of  the  line.     See  page  342. 

E.  s.     Emphasis  of  the  sentence  violated. 

E.  p.    Emphasis  of  the  paragraph  violated. 

F.  Feeble. 

G.  Good  Use  violated.  You  have  used  a  word  or  expression  not 
employed  by  the  best  writers.  Find  some  synonymous  expression 
which  is  in  good  use. 

gr.     Bad  grammar. 

H.  Haste.  Carelessness  and  extreme  haste  are  evident.  Recast 
the  sentence. 

Hk.     Hackneyed  or  trite.     Use  a  more  vivid  expression, 


354  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

I.  S.     Incomplete  sentence. 

J.  Jerky.  Too  many  short  sentences.  Combine  into  longer  sen- 
tences and  vary  their  form. 

K.     Awkward,  stiff,  or  clumsy. 

L.     Long  and  involved  sentence.     Break  it  up  into  shorter  ones. 

Ms.  Manuscript  slovenly  or  illegible.  Recopy  with  care  as  far  as 
indicated  by  the  side  line. 

N.  S.     Make  a  new  sentence  at  the  point  indicated. 

0.  Omission.  Something  omitted  which  is  necessary  for  strength, 
clearness,  or  correctness.     Supply  the  omitted  word  or  words. 

P.  Improper  punctuation.  Punctuate  with  care  as  far  as  indicated 
by  the  side  line.     Consult  Appendix  A,  III. 

P.  V.     Proportion  of  the  whole  theme  violated.     Rewrite. 

R.  Do  not  repeat  the  same  word  or  expression  unless  it  is  abso- 
lutely necessary.     Use  a  synonym  or  vary  the  construction. 

Rel.     Relative  pronoun  at  fault. 

Rw.     Rewrite  as  far  as  indicated. 

Sp.  There  is  a  misspelled  word  in  this  line.  Spell  it  correctly  and 
write  the  corrected  form  on  the  back  of  the  theme. 

T.     Bad  taste. 

Taut.     Tautology.     The  same  idea  repeated.     Revise. 

U.  s.     Unity  of  the  sentence  violated. 

U.  p.     Unity  of  the  paragraph  violated. 

U.  t.     Unity  of  the  whole  theme  violated. 

V.     Vague.  Want  of  clear  thinking  is  evident.   Reconstruct  with  care. 

W.     Wordy.     Rewrite.     Express  your  ideas  with  fewer  words. 

w.  w.  Wrong  word.  Find  the  word  which  exactly  and  correctly 
expresses  your  idea. 

X.     Some  fault  too  obvious  to  require  particularization. 

i,  2,  3,  etc.  Words,  phrases,  or  clauses  to  be  rearranged  in  con- 
formity with  the  numbering. 

1".     Proper  place  for  paragraph. 

No  ^[.     Improper  place  for  paragraph. 

%  A.     Too  many  paragraphs.  1  _,  , 

'„      _      c      J  r      °,  J-  Rearrange  your  paragraph  structure. 

1  B.     Too  few  paragraphs,      j  &     J        v      &    v 

?.     Query.     Are  you  sure  that  this  is  right  ? 

O-     Join  the  parts  of  a  word  incorrectly  separated. 

N.  B.     One  of  the  above  marks  placed  on  the  outside  of  a  theme 

warns  the  writer  against  a  prevailing  fault. 


APPENDIX   D 

GOOD   USE 

In  the  following  list  some  of  the  commonest  violations 
of  Good  Use  have  been  pointed  out.  Some  words  and 
expressions  of  doubtful  or  disputed  propriety  have  also 
been  included.  The  student  is  asked  to  go  over  this  list 
with  care  and  note  any  mistakes  that  he  has  been  in  the 
habit  of  making.  It  will  be  worth  his  while  thus  to  become 
acquainted  with  his  faults,  in  order  that  he  may  be  on  his 
guard  against  these  errors  in  his  subsequent  work.1 

For  words  and  expressions  not  found  in  this  list  the 
student  is  referred  to  the  dictionaries.  He  should,  how- 
ever, beware  of  an  error  frequently  committed  by  those 
who  consult  the  dictionaries  for  the  purpose  of  determining 
questions  of  Good  Use.  Our  larger  dictionaries  record  all 
kinds  of  usage,  —  good,  bad,  and  indifferent;  and  the  stu- 
dent, therefore,  should  not  make  the  mistake  of  supposing 
that  all  the  words  and  all  the  meanings  which  he  finds 
recorded  in  a  dictionary  are  in  present,  reputable,  and 
national  use.  He  will  do  well  to  guard  against  using 
words  that  are  labeled  "obsolete,"  "obsolescent,"  "ar- 
chaic,"  "provincial,"    "colloquial,"    "new,"    "slang,"    or 

1  The  author  wishes  to  acknowledge  his  indebtedness  to  the  Appendix  on  Disputed 
and  Faulty  Diction  in  Professor  A.  G.  Newcomer's  "Elements  of  Rhetoric";  to 
the  Appendix  on  Faulty  Diction  in  the  Standard  Dictionary  ;  and  to  Dr.  R.  H. 
Bell's  excellent  little  book  on  "  The  Worth  of  Words."  The  last-named  book 
should  be  read  by  all  students  of  Composition.  The  Appendix  on  Faulty  Diction 
in  the  Standard  Dictionary  is  excellent. 

355 


356  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

"  vulgar  M  ;  terms  or  expressions  that  are  clearly  technical 
or  foreign;  and  meanings  that  apparently  lack  the  support 
of  the  best  writers. 

Above.  Not  "  the  above  remark,"  or  "  It  is  evident  from  the  above.'''' 
Do  not  use  above  as  an  adjective.  Foregoing  and  preceding  are  conven- 
ient synonyms. 

Accept  and  except  are  confounded  only  by  the  ignorant  and  the  care- 
less. 

Acceptance,  acceptation.  "  In  the  common  acceptation  of  the  word, 
acceptance  means  either  the  act  of  accepting,  or  a  favorable  reception." 

Affect  and  effect  should  not  be  confounded.  To  affect  means  to  pro- 
duce a  change,  to  influence;  to  effect  means  to  bring  to  pass,  to  produce, 
to  accomplish. 

Aggravate,  in  the  sense  of  vex,  provoke,  exasperate,  is  almost  univer- 
sally condemned.  To  aggravate  means  "  to  increase  in  weight,  gravity, 
severity,  or  intensity"  ;  e.g.,  "  The  climate  aggravates  his  disease." 

A  half  an  hour.   A  half-hour  or  half  an  hour  is  better. 

Ain't,  for  am  7iot,  are  not,  or  is  not,  is  an  obvious  vulgarism. 

All  of.  After  all,  "  the  best  literary  usage  omits  the  of  as  needless, 
preferring  <I  saw  them  alV  (not  all  of  them),  'Take  it  air  (not  all 
of  it),  <  I  saw  all  (not  all  of)  my  friends,1  i  They  all  (not  all  of  them) 
came.'" 

Allow,  in  the  sense  of  say,  is  provincial  and  vulgar ;  e.g.,  "  He  allowed 
that  he  would  come." 

Allude.  "  We  allude  to  an  event  not  distinctly  mentioned  or  directly 
referred  to."  It  is  correct  to  say  that  "  <  Paradise  Lost '  contains  many 
classical  allusions.'1'' 

Alternative  strictly  refers  to  "  a  choice  between  two  things,"  or  to 
"  one  of  the  two  things  of  which  either  is  possible  or  may  be  chosen." 
Alternative  should  not  be  applied  to  more  than  two  things. 

Alumnus,  alumni.  Almnnus  is  the  masculine  singular  form ;  alumni 
is  the  masculine  plural.  Alumna  is  the  feminine  singular ;  alumna,  the 
feminine  plural. 

Among,  between.  Among  properly  applies  to  more  than  two.  Be- 
tween should  be  used  of  two  things  only.  It  is  incorrect  to  say,  "  We 
must  choose  between  these  four  courses." 

Anxious  is  not  synonymous  with  eager  or  desirous.  Even  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentence,  anxious  implies  solicitude  or  anxiety:  "He  sneers 


APPENDIX   D  357 

alike  at  those  who  are  anxious  to  preserve  and  at  those  who  are  eager 
for  reform.11 

Any  may  be  used  as  an  adverb  of  degree  with  comparatives,  as  in 
"  any  more,11  "  any  sooner,11  "  any  better  "  ;  but  any  should  not  be  used 
absolutely  with  verbs,  as  in  "Can  you  sing  any?"  and  "It  didn't  rain 
any  yesterday.1' 

Any  place  should  not  be  used  for  the  adverb  anywhere ;  as,  e.g,  "We 
searched  the  grove,  but  could  not  find  him  any  place  in  the  neighbor- 
hood.11 

Appreciate  means  to  estimate  justly  or  "  value  at  real  worth."  In  the 
sentence,  "  I  very  much  appreciate  the  help  you  gave  me,11  very  much  is 
superfluous.  "  The  use  of  appreciates  as  equivalent  to  likes  or  rises  in 
value  is  a  mark  of  pretentious  ignorance.11 

As  should  not  be  used  for  the  conjunction  that  after  know.  Only  an 
uneducated  man  would  say,  "  I  do  not  know  as  I  can  be  present.1' 

As  far  as  and  so  far  as  may  be  used  interchangeably.  So  far  as  is 
the  more  emphatic  form. 

As  though,  in  the  sense  of  as  if,  though  often  condemned  by  purists, 
is  an  old  and  well-established  idiom. 

At  is  to  be  "preferred  to  in  before  the  names  of  cities  and  towns 
when  they  are  thought  of  as  geographical  points  " ;  e.g.,  "  He  arrived 
at  Philadelphia.     He  died  at  Pasadena.11 

Avocation,  vocation.  Avocation  is  loosely  used  for  vocation.  "Voca- 
tion strictly  signifies  the  main  calling  or  business  of  life  \  avocation,  a 
diversion  from  that  vocation" ;  e.g.,  "The  law  was  his  vocation  ;  litera- 
ture was  his  avocation." 

Aware.   See  Conscious. 

A  ways.  "  I  found  that  it  was  a  long  ways  to  the  city  "  is  incorrect. 
Use  way. 

Awful  and  awfully  are  vulgar  and  meaningless  substitutes  for 
very. 

Back  of  is  a  provincial  substitute  for  behind. 

Balance  should  not  be  used  for  remainder. 

Be  back.  The  adverb  back  usually  implies  motion.  The  common 
colloquialism,  "  I'll  be  back  soon,11  can  hardly  be  defended. 

Begin,  commence.  "  In  all  ordinary  uses,11  says  the  Century  Diction- 
ary, "  commence  is  exactly  synonymous  with  begin,  which,  as  a  purely 
English  word,  is  nearly  always  preferable,  but  more  especially  before 
another  verb  in  the  infinitive.11 


358  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

Being,  in  such  expressions  as  "  The  work  is  being  done,"  "  The  carpet 
is  now  being  beaten,"  has  won  its  way  into  good  use. 

Beside,  besides.  Beside  means  by  the  side  of;  e.g.,  "  He  stood  beside 
me."  Besides  means  in  addition  to;  e.g.,  "Besides  my  regular  college 
studies,  I  took  German  lessons  under  a  private  tutor." 

Between.     See  Among. 

Blame  should  not  be  used  with  the  preposition  on.  It  is  incorrect  to 
say,  "He  bla?ned  the  accident  on  me."  The  correct  idioms  are  to  blame 
for  or  to  lay  the  blame  upon. 

Bound,  in  the  sense  of  resolved  or  determi?ied,  is  purely  colloquial. 

Bring.    See  Fetch. 

Bursted  is  a  vulgarism.     Burst  is  the  correct  form. 

But  what.  Use  but  that,  as  in  "  I  do  not  know  but  that  they  will 
arrive  to-day."  But  what  is  correct  when  what  is  used  as  a  relative 
pronoun  ;  e.g.,  "  Nothing  remained  but  what  had  been  deposited  in  the 
savings  bank." 

By,  with.  "By  is  properly  used  before  the  agent;  with,  before  the 
instrument  or  means  "  ;  as,  "  He  was  shot  by  a  burglar,"  and  u  The  boy 
cut  his  hand  with  the  knife."  Yet  "  active  forces  are  often  thought 
of  as  agents";  hence  we  say,  "The  man  was  struck  by  the  train." 
By  may  also  signify  by  means  of;  as  in  "  He  gained  his  ends  by 
bribery." 

Calculated  implies  purpose ;  it  is  "  not  merely  equivalent  to  likely." 
Can  but,  cannot  but,  cannot  help,  are  all  good  idioms. 

Cannot  help  but  is  an  impropriety  produced  by  combining  two  good 
idioms. 

Caption,  in  the  sense  of  heading  {e.g.,  "  He  wrote  under  the  caption 
'Good  Roads1"),  is  a  common  Americanism.  This  impropriety  is 
due  to  a  mistaken  etymology.  Caption  is  derived  from  capio,  not 
caput. 

Claim,  as  a  synonym  for  maintain  or  contend  (in  argument),  though 
used  with  increasing  frequency,  is  avoided  by  the  best  writers  and 
speakers. 

Clever,  as  a  synonym  for  obliging  or  generous,  is  a  provincialism. 
Clever  means  "  possessing  quickness  of  intellect,  skill,  dexterity,  talent, 
or  adroitness." 

Commence.    See  Begin. 

Complected  is  a  vulgarism.  We  may  say  dark-complexioned,  but  not 
dark-complected. 


APPENDIX    D  359 

Comprehensible,  comprehensive.  Comprehensible  means  "  that  which 
may  be  comprehended  or  understood " ;  comprehensive  means  "  com- 
prehending much  in  a  comparatively  small  compass.1' 

Condign,  as  applied  to  punishment,  does  not  mean  severe.  Its  cor- 
rect meaning  is  worthy  or  deserved. 

Conscious,  aware.  "Aware  refers  to  objects  of  perception,  things 
outside  of  ourselves ;  conscious,  to  objects  of  sensation,  things  within 
us."  We  are  conscious  of  our  own  thoughts  and  feelings ;  we  are 
aware  of  external  facts,  objects,  and  circumstances. 

Contemptible,  contemptuous.  Contemptible  means  worthy  of  con- 
tempt ;  contemptuous  means  manifesting-  or  expressing  contempt ;  e.g., 
u  Benedict  Arnold's  conduct  was  contemptible."  "  He  glanced  con- 
temptuously at  the  prisoner." 

Continually,  continuously.  Continually  refers  to  repeated  action; 
continuously  implies  that  the  action  is  uninterrupted.  "  Continuous 
describes  that  which  is  absolutely  without  pause  or  break ;  continual 
that  which  often  intermits,  but  as  often  begins  again;"  e.g.,  "The 
flow  of  water  was  continuous.'1'1  "The  continual  dropping  of  water  will 
wear  away  a  stone." 

Convene  means  to  come  together  or  assemble :  "  Congress  convenes  on 
the  first  Monday  in  December."  "  The  President  may  convoke,  but  he 
cannot  convene  Congress." 

Council,  counsel.  A  council  is  an  advisory  body ;  counsel  means  ad- 
vice, sometimes  a  legal  adviser:  "  A  council  often  meets  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  counsel." 

Couple.  A  couple  of  is  vulgarly  used  as  a  substitute  for  several. 
Couple  strictly  means  "two  related  or  associated  persons  or  things." 

Credible,  credulous.  Credible  means  worthy  of  belief;  credulous 
means  disposed  to  believe  on  slight  evidence ;  e.g.,  "  Credulous  people 
sometimes  believe  incredible  rumors." 

Cute,  a  common  colloquialism  for  acute  and  cunning,  is  a  barbarism. 

Data  is  the  plural  of  datum. 

Demean  does  not  signify  to  debase  or  degrade.  Its  proper  meaning 
is  to  conduct  or  behave ;  as,  "  They  have  demeaned  themselves  like  men 
born  to  renown." 

Depot.  A  depot  is  a  storehouse.  It  is  widely  but  incorrectly  used 
for  railway  station. 

Differ  from,  differ  with.  "  Differ  from,  in  character ;  differ  from  or 
with,  in  opinion." 


360  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

Different  than.   Write  different  from  or  other  than. 

Different  to,  "  though  common  in  England,  is  not  sustained  by  good 
authority."     Different  from  is  the  correct  idiom. 

Directly  is  an  adverb,  not  a  conjunction.  It  should  not  be  used 
for  as  soon  as,  or  immediately  after,  as  in  "Directly  I  get  there,  I'll 
write." 

Distinct  and  distinctive  are  sometimes  confused.  Distinct  means 
separate,  different ;  distinctive  means  characteristic,  "  marki?ig  a  dis- 
tinction or  peculiarity'1'1 ;  e.g.,  "These  two  nations  are  distinct,  and 
each  of  them  has  its  distinctive  character  and  institutions." 

Dock  is  often '  misused  for  pier  or  wharf  A  dock  is  an  "  artificial 
basin  for  vessels." 

Don't  is  a  contraction  of  do  not.  Hence  it  is  improper  to  use  don't 
in  the  third  person  singular.     The  proper  contraction  is  doesn't. 

Doubt  but  that  is  wrongly  used  for  doubt  that.  "  There  can  be  no 
doubt  but  that"  etc.,  should  be  " There  can  be  no  doubt  that"  etc. 

Dove.   The  colloquial  preterite  dove  should  not  be  used  for  dived. 

Drive  may  mean  to  M  travel  in  a  carriage  "  :  "  Did  you  ride  or  drive 
in  the  park  ?  "  But  it  is  an  inexcusable  impropriety  to  say :  "  He  drove 
his  friends  to  the  station  in  his  own  carriage." 

Each  other,  one  another.  "  Each  other  may  be  used  for  more  than 
two,  though  possibly  one  another  is  preferable,  as  serving  to  make  a 
distinction." 

Electrocute,  "to  inflict  a  death  penalty  by  means  of  electricity," 
though  frequently  condemned  as  a  barbarism  and  a  monstrosity,  seems 
destined  to  find  a  permanent  place  in  the  language.  Electricute  is  pre- 
ferred by  the  Standard  Dictionary. 

Elegant  has  a  definite  meaning  and  should  not  be  used  as  a  vague 
term  of  general  approval.  Strictly  speaking,  "that  which  is  elegant  is 
marked  by  refinement,  or  grace,  or  delicacy  of  stature,  form,  or  action." 
See  Splendid. 

Eliminate  does  not  mean  to  elicit,  derive,  or  deduce.  Its  correct 
meaning  is  to  cast  out,  thrust  out,  or  throw  aside.  The  mathematician 
eliminates  a  quantity  from  an  equation. 

Else's.  Somebody  else^s  is  quite  as  correct  as  somebody's  else,  and  is 
more  natural  and  idiomatic. 

Emigrate,  immigrate.  Note  the  prefixes  e-  and  im-  (for  in-) .  Emi- 
grate means  to  migrate  or  move  out  of  a  country ;  immigrate  means  to 
move  into  a  country ;  e.g.,  "  Thousands  of  Irish  emigrants  leave  Cork 


APPENDIX   D  361 

every  year.     In  our  American  cities  these  Irish  immigrants  sometimes 
become  prominent  citizens.1' 

Endorse,  in  the  figurative  sense  of  approve,  though  often  condemned 
by  purists,  is  sanctioned  by  Good  Use. 

Enthuse  is  a  barbarism. 

Ere  and  erelong  are  poetic.  They  seem  to  be  out  of  place  in  ordi- 
nary prose. 

Expect  is  never  equivalent  to  suppose.  "  I  expect  that  they  are 
somehow  interested  in  this  matter1'  is  incorrect. 

Extend  is  used  incorrectly  in  such  an  expression  as  "  to  extend  a  vote 
of  thanks,"  "  to  extend  an  invitation,"  "  to  extend  a  reception,"  etc. 

Farther,  further.  "Writers  who  desire  to  keep  the  words  distinct 
use  the  former  for  distance,  the  latter  for  quantity  or  degree." 

Female,  when  used  as  a  synonym  for  woman,  is  now  regarded  as  a 
gross  impropriety. 

Fetch,  bring.  Fetch  is  a  good  English  word.  "Fetch  expresses 
double  motion  —  first  from,  then  toward  the  speaker;"  e.g.,  "Fetch  me 
the  book  "  means  "  Go  and  bring  me  the  book."  Bring  implies  motion 
in  one  direction  only  —  from  the  object  to  the  speaker  :  "  If  you  are  at 
the  book-case,  I  should  like  you  to  oring  me  the  dictionary." 

Fine  should  not  be  used  as  a  vague,  general  term  of  approval.  See 
Elegant  and  Nice. 

Firstly.  The  correct  adverbial  form  is  first.  In  a  series  use  the  ad- 
verbs first,  secondly,  thirdly,  etc. 

First-rate  is  in  good  use  as  an  adjective,  but  not  as  an  adverb.  Do 
not  say,  "  I  slept  first-rate  last  night." 

Fix  should  not  be  used  for  repair,  prepare,  or  arrange. 

Fly,  flee,  flow.  "  Flee  is  a  general  term  and  means  to  move  away 
with  voluntary  rapidity.  Fly  is  of  special  application  and  means  to 
move  with  wings,  either  quickly  or  slowly."  Streams  flow.  The  prin- 
cipal parts  of  these  verbs  are  fly,  flew,  flown ;  flee,  fled,  fled ;  flow,  flowed, 
flowed.  The  forms  of  one  verb  should  not  be  confused  with  those  of 
another. 

Folks  is  in  very  general  colloquial  use ;  as  "  the  old  folks,"  "  poor 
folks,"  "the  young  folks."     "The  word  folks  is  now  well  established." 

Forward,  forwards.     See  Toward,  towards. 

From  hence,  from  thence,  from  whence.     Fro?n  is  superfluous. 

Funny  does  not  mean  odd  or  umisual. 

Gent,  gents.   A  vulgarism. 


362  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

Gentleman  should  not  be  used  when  simply  man  is  meant.  Not  all 
men  are  gentlemen.     See  Lady. 

Good  deal  and  great  deal  are  both  good  idioms. 

Got  properly  has  the  sense  of  acquired  or  procured,  but  should  not 
be  used  to  express  mere  possession.  "  Not  i  The  horse  has  got  long 
ears,'  because  he  has  done  nothing  to  get  them." 

Gotten,  although  once  a  good  form,  is  now  obsolescent  and  provin- 
cial.    Some  writers,  however,  have  shown  a  disposition  to  revive  it. 

Graduated.  "  He  was gradicated "  is  to  be  preferred  to  "He gradu- 
ated." 

Grand,  gorgeous,  glorious.  These  words  should  not  be  used  as  vague 
terms  of  approval.     See  Elegant  and  Splendid. 

Gumption  is  colloquial  and  provincial. 

Had  better  and  had  rather  are  both  good  idioms. 

Hail,  in  the  question,  "  Where  do  you  hail  from  ?"  is  a  provincialism. 

Heap,  heaps.  "  A  heap  of  friends "  and  "  It  did  me  heaps  of 
good"  illustrate  a  vulgar  colloquialism.     See  Lot,  lots. 

Home.  The  adverb  home  should  be  used  only  with  verbs  of  motion : 
"  He  came  home"  but  not  u  He  is  home." 

Hung,  hanged.  Hanged  is  the  accepted  form  for  "  put  to  death  on 
the  gallows." 

If.  It  is  best  not  to  use  if  tor  whether  in  substantive  clauses ;  as, 
e.g.,  "  I  do  not  know  if  he  will  come." 

Immigrate.     See  Emigrate. 

In,  into.  In  denotes  position,  state,  rest ;  into  implies  motion ; 
e.g.,  "  I  went  into  the  house."  "  I  remained  in  my  room  all  the 
forenoon." 

Individual  should  not  be  used  as  a  synonym  for  person. 

In  our  midst,  in  their  midst.  "The  phrase  has  long  been  con- 
demned," says  Professor  Newcomer,  "but  is  well  established."  Pro- 
fessor A.  S.  Hill  says :  "  Careful  writers  avoid  in  our  midst,  in  their 
midst ;  but  no  one  hesitates  to  write  '  on  our  account,1  '  in  my  absence,' 
'to  their  credit,'  'for  my  sake,'  'in  his  defence.' " 

Kind  of,  sort  of  (sometimes  kinder,  sorter),  are  vulgar  provincial 
substitutes  for  somewhat-,  as,  e.g.,  "I'm  kind  of  tired,"  "His  appeal 
sounded  sort  0/"  pathetic." 

Kind  of  a,  sort  of  a.  The  indefinite  article  should  be  omitted  before 
the  noun.  Not  "What  kind  of  a  house  is  it?"  but  "  What  kind  of 
house  is  it?" 


APPENDIX   D  363 

Lady,  according  to  the  Standard  Dictionary,  signifies  "  a  refined  or 
well-bred  woman,  or  one  of  superior  social  position,  and  is  used  as  a 
correlative  of  gentleman.  Its  use  as  indicating  mere  distinction  of  sex 
is  a  sheer  vulgarism." 

Last  and  latest  are  not  synonymous.  "This  book  is  his  latest,  but 
I  hope  it  will  not  be  his  last/'' 

Later  on.    Omit  on. 

Leave,  let.  Leave,  in  the  sense  of  let,  permit,  or  allow,  is  a  provin- 
cialism.    Not  "  He  left  me  go,"  but  "  He  let  me  go." 

Leave  alone  and  let  alone  are  by  no  means  synonymous. 

Less,  fewer.  Less  refers  to  amount  or  bulk ;  fewer  to  number ;  as, 
e.g.,  "He  received  less  encouragement  and  had  fewer  opportunities 
than  his  brothers." 

Lie,  lay.  Lie  is  intransitive.  Its  principal  parts  are  lie,  lay,  lain.  Lay 
is  transitive.  Its  principal  parts  are  lay,  laid,  laid.  The  forms  of  lay 
are  often  confused  with  those  of  lie.  The  following  are  incorrect :  "He 
laid  down  and  went  to  sleep."  "  We  found  him  laying  under  a  tree." 
See  page  192. 

Like  should  not  be  used  as  a  conjunction,  in  the  sense  of  as.  It  is 
incorrect  to  say,  "  Do  this  like  I  do  it." 

Likely.  It  is  best  to  avoid  the  use  of  likely  as  an  adverb ;  not  "  It 
will  likely  rain  to-day,"  but  "  It  is  likely  to  rain  to-day." 

Likely,  liable.  Liable  is  correctly  used  to  refer  to  an  unpleasant  or 
an  unfavorable  possibility.  It  should  not  be  used  as  equivalent  to  likely, 
which  refers  to  any  kind  of  probability.  Liable  is  used  incorrectly  in 
"  Our  team  is  liable  to  win  the  next  three  games." 

Limited  means  "  confined  within  limits,"  restricted.  It  is  improperly 
used  for  small. 

Loan  should  not  be  used  as  a  verb  in  the  sense  of  lend. 

Locate  should  not  be  used  intransitively  in  the  sense  of  settle. 

Lot,  lots,  in  "  We  had  lots  of  fun,"  "  He  did  a  lot  of  good,"  "  He  has 
lots  of  friends,"  is  a  "  slipshod  colloquialism  for  a  great  deal  or  a  great 
many." 

Mad,  in  the  sense  of  vexed  or  angry,  is  colloquial. 

Most,  in  the  sense  of  almost,  is  a  very  common  impropriety.  Do  not 
say,  "  It  happens  most  every  day." 

Myself  should  not  be  used  as  a  subject  nominative  instead  of  /,  as  in 
the  sentence,  "  Here  Robert,  Jennie,  and  myself  used  to  play." 

Nice  strictly  means  delicate,  discriminating.     "  It  is  improperly  used 


364  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

to  express  every  kind  and  degree  of  admired  or  appreciated  quality,  as 
'  a  nice  time,'  '  a  nice  horse,'  '  a  nice  man,1  t  a  nice  sermon.1 " 

None.  The  use  of  the  pronoun  none  in  the  plural  has  been  often 
condemned,  but  without  sufficient  reason.  It  is  correct  to  say,  "None 
of  my  friends  were  present,11  "  None  of  these  things  move  me.11 

No  use.     Not  "  It  is  no  use,'1'1  but  "  It  is  of  no  use." 

0,  oh.  "  Distinguish  between  the  sign  of  the  vocative  and  the 
emotional  interjection,  writing  O  for  the  former,  and  oh  for  the 
latter." 

Observance,  observation.  Note  the  difference  in  meaning:  "The 
observation  of  the  stars  led,  in  the  past,  to  many  religious  observances, ." 

Off  of.  In  the  sentence  "  He  got  off  of  the  train,"  the  use  of  the 
redundant  of  is  improper. 

One.  Many  writers  insist  that  when  the  indefinite  pronoun  one  is 
used,  it  should  not  be  followed  up  with  he,  his,  and  him,  but  should  be 
retained  throughout  the  passage.  In  many  cases,  however,  the  constant 
repetition  of  one  is  awkward  and  monotonous,  and  the  pronouns  he,  his, 
and  him  are  to  be  preferred. 

Ones.     The  plural  ones  may  be  used. 

One's  self  is  better  than  oneself. 

Onto.  "  It  is  difficult  to  regard  this  form  with  favor,  but  there  can 
be  no  question  that  it  is  steadily  gaining  ground.  For  the  present,  a 
writer  will  do  well  to  ask  himself,  in  every  case,  whether  upon  (or  at 
any  rate  on  to)  will  not  serve  his  purpose  equally  well." 

Out  should  not  be  used  as  a  preposition ;  not  "  He  walked  slowly  out 
the  room,"  but  "  He  walked  slowly  out  of  the  room." 

Outclassed,  generally  used  in  the  passive  in  the  sense  of  "  surpassed 
in  skill  or  quality,11  is  a  comparatively  recent  newspaper  invention,  not 
in  recognized  good  use. 

Overly  is  vulgar  and  colloquial. 

Pants  (from  pantaloons)  is  a  vulgarism  for  trousers.  "  Gents  wear 
pants." 

Partake  does  not  mean  to  eat.  It  properly  means  "  to  have  a  part  or 
share,  in  common  with  others." 

Party,  used  to  refer  to  a  particular  person,  as  in  "  an  old  party  of  my 
acquaintance,"  is  a  vulgarism. 

Per  is  a  Latin  preposition,  and  should  be  used  only  with  Latin  words. 
Such  expressions  as  " per  year,"  "per  dozen,"  "per  hundred,"  "per 
express,"  are  not  in  good  use. 


APPENDIX   D  365 

Phenomena  is  the  plural  of  phenomenon. 

Phone  is  an  inelegant  abbreviation  of  telephone. 

Photo,  for  photograph,  is  not  in  good  use. 

Plenty  is  not  an  adjective,  but  a  noun.  Plentiful  is  the  proper 
adjective  form.     It  is  incorrect  to  say,  u  Apples  are  plenty  this  year." 

Portion,  part.  Portion  should  not  be  used  loosely  as  a  synonym  for 
part.  Part  is  a  general  term,  signifying  "  that  which  is  less  than  the 
whole."  Portion  is  more  specific,  and  carries  with  it  the  suggestion 
of  allotment  or  assignment;  as,  e.g.,  "  Father,  give  me  the  portion  of 
goods  that  falleth  to  me." 

Posted,  in  the  sense  of  well  informed,  is  a  common  impropriety. 

Previous  to.  Previous  is  an  adjective  and  should  not  be  used  ad- 
verbially.    Before  is  usually  better  than  previously  to. 

Proven  is  hardly  in  good  use.     Proved  is  far  better. 

Providing  and  providing  that  should  not  be  used  as  conjunctions 
equivalent  to  provided  and  provided  that. 

Quite.  "The  word,"  says  Professor  Newcomer,  "should  be  kept  to 
its  strict  meaning  of  wholly ;  as,  '  You  are  quite  right,'  '  The  man  is  quite 
dead.1  In  the  sense  of  very,  as  'The  man  is  quite  sick,1  the  word  has 
much  authority  and  the  weight  of  almost  universal  colloquial  usage,  but 
if  it  be  allowed  in  this  sense,  the  word  almost  entirely  loses  its  value, 
since  it  is  often  impossible  to  tell  just  what  the  word  does  mean  in  a 
given  case." 

Raise,  rear.  Children  are  reared,  not  raised.  One  may  raise  cattle 
or  tobacco. 

Raise,  rise.  Raise  is  transitive.  Its  principal  parts  are  raise,  raised, 
raised.  Rise  is  intransitive.  Its  principal  parts  are  rise,  rose,  risen. 
Raise  should  not  be  used  intransitively  for  rise,  as  in  "  Then  the  water 
began  to  raise  in  the  siphon."     See  page  192. 

Rarely  ever  was  no  doubt  originally  rarely  if  ever.  Rarely  is 
sufficient. 

Real  is  vulgarly  used  as  an  adverb :  "  He  was  real  kind  to  me." 

Recipe,  receipt.  "  A  recipe  for  fruit-cake."  "He  gave  me  a  receipt 
for  the  money."     The  distinction  is  worth  preserving. 

Referee,  as  a  verb,  is  not  in  good  use.    Referee  is  a  noun. 

Relative,  relation.     Relatives  is  far  better  than  relations. 

Remember  of.  Of  should  not  be  used  with  remember,  as  in  the  sen- 
tence, "  I  cannot  remember  of  any  other  instance." 

Residence  is  a  poor  synonym  for  dwelling-house. 


366  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

Retire  means  to  withdraw.  It  is  vulgarly  supposed  to  be  a  polite 
euphemism  for  go  to  bed. 

Rig  is  colloquial  and  provincial  for  horse  and  carriage. 

Right  away  is  a  common  colloquialism  for  at  once  or  itnmediately . 

Right  here,  right  now,  etc.,  are  generally  condemned  as  objectionable 
Americanisms. 

Seldom,  or  ever  was  no  doubt  originally  seldom  or  never  or  seldom  if 
ever.     Seldom  is  sufficient. 

Sit,  set.  Sit  is  usually  intransitive.  Its  principal  parts  are  sit,  sat, 
sat.  Set  is  usually  transitive.  Its  principal  parts  are  set,  set,  set.  The 
forms  of  one  verb  are  often  confused  with  those  of  the  other.  See 
page  192. 

So  should  not  be  used  as  an  intensive  word,  equivalent  to  very,  as  in 
"  I  am  so  glad  to  see  you,"  "  I  am  so  tired  this  evening,"  "  He  was  so 
kind  to  me." 

Some  should  not  be  used  adverbially  for  somewhat,  a  little.  It  is 
incorrect  to  say,  "  It  rained  sotne  yesterday,"  "  The  invalid  is  some  better 
to-day." 

Some  place  should  not  be  used  adverbially  for  somewhere ;  as,  e.g., 
"  He  is  here  to-day  ;  to-morrow  he  is  some  place  else." 

Splendid.  "  Never  use  splendid  unless  actual  splendor  is  implied." 
It  is  impossible  to  "  have  a  splendid  time."     See  Elegant. 

Stop,  stay.  Do  not  say,  "I  stopped  last  night  at  the  Clarendon 
House."  To  stop  means  to  cease  moving.  "  ■  How  long  will  you  stop  ? ' 
is  as  unreasonable  a  question  as  '  How  long  will  you  start  ? '  "  Stay  can 
generally  be  used  where  stop  is  improperly  used.  The  verb  sojourn  is 
coming  into  use  in  sentences  like  the  following :  "  We  are  sojourning  at 
the  Cliff  House."  This  useful  word  is  commended  by  the  Standard 
Dictionary. 

Strata  is  the  plural  of  stratum. 

Subsequent  to.  The  adjective  subsequent  should  not  be  used  adverbi- 
ally.    After  is  better  than  subsequently  to.     See  Previous. 

Such  a  is  often  inelegantly  used  before  an  attributive  adjective  and  a 
noun,  as  in  "such  a  small  house,"  "such  a  large  man,"  instead  of  "so 
small  a  house,"  "so  large  a  man." 

Sundown  and  sunup  are  poor,  provincial  substitutes  for  sunset  and 
sunrise. 

Talented,  though  often  condemned,  has  won  its  way  into  good  use. 

Team  does  not  mean  a  horse  and  carriage.     A  team   consists   of 


APPENDIX   D  367 

"  two  or  more  animals  working  together."  We  may  speak  of  "  a 
team  of  horses,"  "a  teatn  of  oxen,"  "a  baseball  team?  "a  football 
team"  etc. 

Than  whom  is  in  good  use.  It  is,  however,  both  awkward  and 
unnecessary. 

That  far,  that  much,  etc.  That  should  not  be  used  adverbially. 
Say  "  so  far,"  "  so  much,"  etc. 

This  far,  this  much,  etc.  This  should  not  be  used  adverbially.  Thus 
is  the  proper  adverb  :  "  thus  far,"  "  thus  much,"  etc. 

Those  kind  (or  sort).     Write  this  kind  (or  sort).     See  page  186. 

Through.     "  Inelegant  for  done,  finished" 

Toward,  towards.  Both  forms  are  correct.  "  Toward  is  the  older, 
and  in  general  the  more  euphonious  form." 

Transpire  means  to  become  known,  generally  "through  unnoticed 
channels";  "to  exhale,  as  it  were,  into  publicity  through  invisible 
pores."  Transpire  does  not  mean  to  happen.  "The  events  which 
have  transpired 'in  the  Crimea"  has  been  called,  by  John  Stuart  Mill, 
"  a  vile  specimen  of  bad  English."  Newspapers  have  given  wide  cur- 
rency to  this  impropriety. 

Try  and  is  often  improperly  used  for  try  to;  as,  e.g.,  "  Try  and  finish 
this  to-day." 

Two  first,  two  last.     First  two  and  last  two  are  better. 

Verbal  is  frequently  misused  for  oral.  "  Verbal  means  in  words 
(written  or  spoken)  ;  oral  means  by  word  of  mouth." 

Very  is  sometimes  inelegantly  used  as  a  modifier  of  the  past  parti- 
ciple ;  as,  e.g.,  "  I  was  very  provoked,"  "  I  was  very  disappointed." 
Good  Use  has,  however,  approved  of  "  very  tired."  Very  may  be  used 
with  any  past  participle  that  has  become  an  adjective. 

Vocation.     See  Avocation. 

Whether  or  no,  though  often  condemned,  is  a  good  English  idiom. 

With.     See  By. 

Without,  as  a  conjunction  equivalent  to  unless,  is  "  now  rarely  used 
by  good  writers  and  speakers." 

Young  ladies.  Young  women  is  the  proper  correlative  of  young men. 
See  Lady. 

Yours,  etc.,  at  the  end  of  a  letter,  shows  scant  courtesy. 


APPENDIX   E 

ADDITIONAL  THEME-SUBJECTS 

The  student  who  has  difficulty  in  finding  a  suitable 
theme-subject  may,  it  is  hoped,  receive  some  help  or  sug- 
gestion from  the  following  lists.  The  subjects  here  set 
down  have  been  roughly  classified  for  the  convenience  of 
those  wlfo  are  trying  to  find  something  to  write  about. 
These  subjects  have  at  least  this  merit :  they  have  all  been 
tested  by  actual  use.  Yet  they  have  not  been  given  for 
the  purpose  of  furnishing  the  student  with  ready-made 
subjects  and  titles.  The  value  of  these  lists,  of  course, 
lies  chiefly  in  the  fact  that  they  are  likely  to  suggest  to 
the  average  student  some  subjects  coming  within  the  range 
of  his  interest,  experience,  and  ability. 


I.    NARRATION 


I. 

A  Midnight  Sleigh-ride. 

ii. 

2. 

Seeking  for  Hidden  Treasure. 

3- 

My  Experience  with  a  Ghost. 

12. 

4- 

How  I  Came  near  Drowning. 

5- 

How  a  Cheap  Trip  Became 

13- 

Costly. 

14. 

6. 

My   School    Life   up   to    the 

Present  Time. 

*5« 

7- 

The  First  Money  I   ever 

16. 

Earned. 

17- 

8. 

A  Battle  with  a  Rattlesnake. 

18. 

9- 

Our  Snowball  Fight. 

0. 

A  Watermelon  Party. 

19. 

The  Home-coming  of  a  Sol- 
dier Boy. 

An  Amusing  Experience  at  a 
Picnic. 

A  Bicycle  Race. 

A  Practical  Joke  and  What 
Came  of  it. 

Locking  the  Teacher  in. 

Shut  in  by  the  Great  Blizzard. 

A  Campaign  Lie. 

A  Moonlight  Ride  on  a  Canal- 
boat. 

A  Timely  Discovery. 


368 


APPENDIX    E 


369 


20.  How  I  Secured  Dinner  While 

out  Camping. 

21.  A  Race  against  Time. 

22.  An  Afternoon's  Outing. 

23.  The  Night  after  the  Victori- 

ous Game. 

24.  "White  Caps." 

25.  How  a  Boy  was  Rescued  from 

Drowning. 

26.  A  Moment  of  Suspense. 

27.  A  False  Alarm. 

28.  Lost  in  the  Mountains. 

29.  "  Getting  his  Money's  Worth.1' 

30.  A  Runaway  Bicycle. 

31.  A  Lonely  Ride. 

32.  An  Experience  with  a  Vicious 

Horse. 

33.  A  Mysterious  Occurrence. 

34.  Cutting  down  a  Bee  Tree. 

35.  How  I  Caught  an  Opossum. 

36.  The  Bravest  Deed  I  ever  Saw. 

37.  My  First  Ocean  Voyage. 

38.  Caught  in  a  Storm. 

39.  A  Short  Sketch  of  my  Life. 

40.  My  Fish  Story. 

41.  A  Runaway  Accident. 

42.  My  First  Knife. 

43.  An  Afternoon  at  Buffalo  Bill's 

Show. 

44.  An    Encounter   with   a   Mad 

Dog. 

45.  When     the     Army     Worms 

Crossed  our  Farm. 

46.  My  First  Pair  of  Skates. 

47.  A  Day's  Routine  in  a  Large 

City  Hospital. 

48.  A  Midnight  Tramp. 

49.  Commencement  Week  in 

School. 


50.  A  Lively  Serenade. 

51.  My  Trip   down   the  Susque- 

hanna on  a  Timber  Raft. 

52.  A  Ride  on  a  Locomotive. 

53.  The  Inauguration  of  Governor 

54.  A  Day  in  the  Legislature. 

55.  An  Experience  in  an  Ice  Jam. 

56.  An       Interesting       Railroad 

Wreck. 

57.  An    Evening     at    a     Camp- 

meeting. 

58.  The  Story  of  a  Runaway  Boy. 

59.  A  Fight   at   a  Moonshiner's 

Still. 

60.  A  Rough  Ride  on  Lake  Erie. 

61.  An  Incident  of  the  Game. 

62.  My  First  Trip  to  the  Seashore. 

63.  How  I  Explored  a  Cave. 

64.  A    Day's    Duck-hunting    on 

the  River. 

65.  A  Rescue. 

66.  An  Exciting  Bear  Hunt. 

67.  Our  Class  Picnic. 

68.  The  First  and  Only  Time   I 

was  Arrested. 

69.  A  Hunting  Accident. 

70.  Incidents  of  my  Bicycle  Trip. 

71.  An  Old  Woman's  First  Ride 

on  the  Cars. 

72.  How  I  Shot  a  Deer. 

73.  My    First     Evening    at    the 

Theatre. 

74.  Our  Straw-ride. 

75.  How  the  Fourth  of  July  was 

Celebrated  at . 

76.  A  Coon  Hunt. 

yy.   My  First   Trip  on   my  New 
Bicycle. 


37o 


COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 


78.  A  Bear  in  the  School. 

79.  The  Only  Railroad  Accident 

I  ever  Saw. 

80.  Locking  the  Teacher  out. 

81.  My  Adventure  with   a  Wild- 

cat. 

82.  The  Boys1  Brigade  in  Camp. 

83.  A  Short  Mutiny. 


84.  My  First  "Century  Run." 

85.  An  Embarrassing  Situation. 

86.  A  Street-car  Accident. 

87.  Hunting  a  Bee  Tree. 

88.  Lost  in  a  Snow-storm. 

89.  How  the  Town  of wa 

Named. 

90.  A  Narrow  Escape. 


II.   DESCRIPTION 


1. 
2. 
3- 

4- 
5- 
6. 

7- 
8. 

9- 
10. 
11. 
12. 

13. 
14. 

15- 

16. 
17. 

18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 

23- 


Some  Old  Landmarks. 
An  Abandoned  Farm. 
The   Most   Beautiful   Spot   I 

Know. 
A  Strange  Freak  of  Nature. 
A  Suburban  Railway  Station. 
An  Old  Grist-mill. 
Some  of  our  Neighbors. 
The  Interior  of  our  House. 
Waiting  for  the  Train. 
The  Rag-man. 
A  Memorial  Monument. 
A  New  England  Kitchen. 
A  Description  of  my  Town. 
A  Gypsy  Camp. 
The  Appearance  of  the  Coke 

Ovens  at  Night. 
An  Old  Ice-house. 
A  Railroad  Section  Gang  at 

Work. 

The  Iron-ore  Banks  at . 

The  Waterfall  at . 

An  Old  Farmhouse. 

The Athletic  Field. 

The  Chemical  Laboratory  at 


The    Interior    of 
tory. 


Fac- 


24.  A  Remarkable  Medicine  Ped- 

ler. 

25.  A  Snow-slide  on  a  Mountain. 

26.  The  Standard  Oil  Company's 

Pumping  Station  at . 

27.  A  Strange  Dinner  Party. 

28.  The   Steel    Pier   at    Atlantic 

City. 

29.  The  Weeping  Willow  that  I 

Pass  Daily. 

30.  The      Free-hand      Drawing 

Room. 

31.  The   Cellar   of  a    Hardware 

Store. 

32.  A County  Farmhouse. 

33 .  The  "  Horseshoe  Curve  "  near 

Altoona. 

34.  A  Snow  Blockade. 

35.  The  Cabin  in  the  Gap. 

36.  A  Fire  on  the  Mountains. 

37.  The  Gymnasium  at Col- 

lege. 

38.  A    Scene    in   the   Anthracite 

Coal  Regions. 

39.  A  Large  Country  Dinner  Party. 

40.  The  Ash-man's  Horse. 

41.  Niagara  Falls  from  Prospect 

Point. 


APPENDIX    E 


371 


42.  A  Country  Store. 

43.  The  Waiting  Room  at . 

44.  The  Big  Spring  at . 

45.  A  Log  Cabin  One  Hundred 

and  Fifty  Years  Old. 

46.  A  Weary  Wanderer. 

47.  The    Engine    Room    of    an 

Ocean  Steamship. 

48.  A  Scene  at  the  Football  Game. 

49.  In  the  Orchard. 

50.  A  Fruit-stand. 

51.  A  Peculiar  Character. 

52.  A  Scene  from  the  Window  of 

my  Room. 

53.  At  a  Quaker  Meeting. 

54.  My  Fighting  Rooster. 

55.  A  Country  Festival. 

56.  What  I  Saw  on  a  Dutch  Sail- 

ing Vessel. 

57.  My  Friend  Matt  the  Pauper. 

58.  An  Abandoned  Mine. 

59.  After  the  Fire. 

60.  A  packwoods  Debating  Soci- 

ety. 

61 .  My  Morning  Walk. 

62.  A  Storm  at  Sea. 

63.  A  Street  in  a  Mining  Town. 

64.  An  Ice-cave  near  Lock  Haven. 

65.  A  Horse  and  his  Rider. 

66.  The  Office  of  a  Country  Editor. 

67.  A  Southern  Plantation. 

68.  The    Chautauqua    Assembly 

Grounds. 


69.  The  Hermit  of . 

70.  Some  Curious  Customs  of  the 

Dunkards. 

7 1 .  The  Reservoir  at . 

72.  A    Deserted    Cabin    in     the 

Mountains. 

73.  The  Interior  of Church. 

74.  Charley  the  Miser. 

75.  The  Board  Walk  at  Atlantic 

City. 

76.  Scenes  around  a  Barnyard  on 

a  Rainy  Day. 

yj.    A  View  from  the  Top  of 

Mountain. 

78.  A  Comical  Couple. 

79.  The  Old  Swimming  Hole. 

80.  A  Favorite  Resort. 

81.  A  Negro  Village. 

82.  A  Strange  Optical  Illusion. 

83.  In  the  Track  of  the  Storm. 

84.  Sights  from  the  Elevated  Rail- 

road Cars. 

85.  Historic  Spots  of  my  Native 

County. 

86.  Some  Curious  People  I  have 

Known. 

87.  A  Country  Band  on  Parade. 

88.  A  Scene  along  the   Susque- 

hanna. 

89.  The    Front    of   the    College 

Campus. 

90.  A   Group  of  Farmers  at  the 

Circus. 


III.   DESCRIPTION   AND   NARRATION   COMBINED 


1 .  At  the  Town  Pump.  4. 

2.  A  Visit  to  the  County  Jail.  5. 

3.  What    I    Saw    at    the    State  6. 

Capitol. 


In  a  Large  Department  Store. 
A  Night  in  the  Woods. 
A  Trip  through  an  Anthracite 
Coal  Mine. 


372 


COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 


7.  At  the  Circus. 

8.  A  Coroner's  Inquest  Which  I 

Attended. 

9.  A  Trip  around  the  Gorge  at 

Niagara  Falls. 

10.  What   I  Saw  at  an  Electric 

Lighting  Plant. 

11.  My    Visit    to    the    Waldorf- 

Astoria. 

12.  A  Day  at  the Exposition. 

13.  Climbing  a  Mountain. 

14.  An  Hour  at  the  Polls. 

15.  Waiting  for  the  Election  Re- 

turns. 

16.  Out  in  the  Blizzard. 

17.  A  Week's  Outing  along   the 

River. 

18.  My  Drive  across  the  Prairies. 

19.  A  Literary  Pilgrimage. 

20.  A  Rainy  Day  in   a   Country 

Hotel. 

21.  My  Visit  to  a  Glass  Factory. 

22.  Seeing  the  White  House. 

23.  The     Largest     Fire     I    ever 

Saw. 

24.  In  the  County  Almshouse. 

25.  An  Evening  at Park. 

26.  A  Strike  in  a  Mining  Town. 

27.  A   Ramble   in  Quest    of  Ar- 

butus. 

28.  A  Country  "  Surprise  Party." 

29.  A  Trip  to  Mount  Vernon. 

30.  Attending  a  Sheriff's  Sale. 

31.  An     Evening    in   a  Country 

Store. 

32.  A  Public  Sale  on  a  Farm. 

33.  The    Firemen's    Convention 

at . 


34.  A  Negro  Camp-meeting. 

35.  A  Trip   by   Boat  from 

to . 

36.  My  Visit  to   the  Loco- 

motive Works. 

37.  A  Glimpse  of  the  President. 

38.  What  I  Saw  in  a  Silk  Mill. 

39.  A  Bicycle  Race. 

40.  A  Week  on  an  Island. 

41.  In  a  Candy  Factory. 

42.  An   Old-fashioned  Christmas 

at  Grandfather's. 

43.  A  Day  on  the  Farm. 

44.  My    First    Visit    to    a    Law 

Court. 

45.  Watching  the   Military  Drill 

at Encampment. 

46.  Our  Commencement  Ball. 

47.  My   Experience    in    a    Log- 

jam. 

48.  The  Morning  the  Circus  Came 

to  Town. 

49.  My     First     Night     in     the 

City. 

50.  Tearing  down  an  Old  House. 

51.  The  Most  Delightful  Ride  I 

ever  Had. 

52.  A  Ramble  over  the  Battle-field 

at . 

53.  A  Rainy  Day  in  a  Garret. 

54.  My  Visit  to  Washington. 
55 ..   What  I  Saw  at  West  Point. 

56.  In  a  Lumber  Camp. 

57.  A  Day  in  Congress. 

58.  At  the  County  Fair. 

59.  My  First  Day  at  College. 

60.  In  the  Patent  Office  at  Wash- 

ington. 


APPENDIX   E 


373 


IV.   EXPOSITION 


3- 
4- 

5- 
6. 

7- 

8. 

9- 

10. 

ii. 

12. 

14. 
'5- 


19. 
20. 
21. 

22. 


Benefits  Arising  from  the  23. 
Rural  Free  Delivery  of  24. 
Mail.  25. 

What  a  Public  Library  would  26. 
Do  for  my  Native  Town. 

How  to  Use  a  Dictionary.  27. 

The  Point  of  View  in  Descrip- 
tive Writing.  28. 

My  Favorite  Studies.  29. 

The  Beginner  at  Golf. 

The  Hungarians  of  the  Coke  30. 
Region. 

How  to  Furnish  a  Room  at  31. 
College. 

Advertising,  —  an  Art.  32. 

My  Ideal  of  a  Home. 

The  Use  of  College  Slang.  33. 

The  Advantages  of  Intercol- 
legiate Games.  34. 

Negro  Life  in  my  Town. 

A  Typical  Country  School.  35. 

A  Criticism  of  my  Early  Edu- 
cation. 36. 

The   Pleasures  of  Life  in  a 
Dormitory.  37. 

Social  Life  at College.  38. 

Some  Impressions  Left  upon 
Me  by  my  Former  Teachers.      39. 

The  Value  of  Lawn  Tennis  as 
an  Exercise.  40. 

The  Principal  Wild  Flowers 
of  my  County.  41. 

The    Outlook    for    Athletics 

at  College   (or  42. 

School). 

Why  it  is  Worth  While  to  43. 
Study  Latin. 


A  Typical  Coke  Town. 

The  American  Joke. 

The  Good  Uses  of  Football. 

The  Student's  Need  of  Recrea- 
tion. 

The  Oyster  Beds  of  Chesa- 
peake Bay. 

The  Stage  Beauty. 

A  Typical  Flower  Botanically 
Considered. 

Some  of  the  Dangers  of 
Imperialism. 

A  Threshing-machine  at 
Work. 

The  Location  of  my  Native 
Town. 

The  Calorimeter  at  the  Experi- 
ment Station. 

The  Political  Editorials  in  the 
Times. 

The  Chief  Uses  of  Electric- 
ity. 

Some  Objections  to  Football 
as  a  College  Game. 

My  Favorite  Author. 

What    College    Needs 

Most. 

The  Electrical  Power-plant  at 
Niagara  Falls. 

The  Polacks  in  the  Anthracite 
Coal  Region. 

The  Classical  Course  in 

School. 

The  Advantages  of  College 
Fraternities. 

Some  Useful  Applications  of 
the  X-Rays. 


374 


COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 


44- 

Basket-ball,  —  an   Ideal  Col- 
lege Game. 

68. 

45- 

The  Uses  of  the  Bicycle. 

69. 

46. 

How    I    have    Planned    this 

Week's  Work. 

70. 

47- 

The  Moral  Standards  of  Stu- 

7i- 

dents. 

72. 

48. 

Decline  in  the  Popularity  of 
the  Bicycle. 

73- 

49. 

Different  Ways  of  Looking  at 
a  Book. 

74- 

50. 

Some  Peculiar  Superstitions. 

75- 

51- 

The  Water  Supply  of . 

52. 

Some  Hints  for  the  Beginner 
at  Football. 

76. 

53- 

The  Hard  Side  of  a  Farmer's 
Life. 

77- 

54- 

The  Hard  Side  of  a 's  Life. 

78. 

55- 

The  Newspaper  as  an  Agent 
in  Forming  Public  Opinion. 

79- 

56. 

What  shall  be  Done  with  the 
English  Sparrow  ? 

80. 

57- 

The  Spirit  of  Modern  Strikes. 

81. 

58. 

The  Advantages  of  Holidays 

'82. 

and  Vacations   to   College 

83. 

Men. 

59- 

Characteristics   of  a  College 
Town. 

84. 

60. 

What  I  Know  about  Farming. 

85. 

61. 

How  to  Take  Notes. 

62. 

The  Advantage  of  Being  well 
Prepared  for  College. 

86. 

63. 

The  Value  of  Scientific  Studies. 

87. 

64. 

Indoor  Athletic  Exercise. 

65. 

Some  Objections  to  Fraterni- 
ties. 

88. 

66. 

What  I  Think  of  Hazing, 

89. 

67. 

Some  Hints  to  those  Learn- 
ing to  Ride  a  Bicycle. 

90. 

What   a   New   High   School 

would  Do  for  my  Town. 
Some   Weak    Points    in    the 

Public  Schools  of . 

Life  in  a  Dormitory. 
Let  us  Protect  the  Song  Birds. 
What  is  True  Americanism  ? 
The  Advantages  of  a  College 

Education. 
How    I    Write    my    Weekly 

Themes. 
The  Dialect  Peculiarities  of 

my  Native  Region. 
Why  Some  Students  Fail  in 

their  College  Work. 
The  Honor  System  in  College 

Examinations. 
Life  in  a  College  Town. 
Mathematics   in  Engineering 

Education. 
The   Advantages   of  Military 

Drill  in  College. 
A  Substitute  for  Examinations. 
Honesty  in  College  Work. 
Requisites     of     Success     in 

Athletics. 
The    Effects    of  Compulsory 

Gymnasium  Drill. 
Why  I  Determined  to  Have 

a  College  Education. 
Why   it   is  Worth  While  to 

Study  Literature. 
The  Best  Equipment  for  Suc- 
cessful Theme-writing. 
The   Social   Side  of  College 

Life. 
True  College  Spirit. 
The  Value  of  General  Reading 

to  the  College  Student. 


APPENDIX   E 


375 


V.    THE   EXPOSITION   OF   SPECIAL   PROCESSES 


i.   How  to  Repair  a  Bicycle  Tire.  26. 

2.  How  Maple  Sugar  is  Made.  27. 

3.  The   Construction   of  a  Dy-  28. 

namo.  29. 

4.  How  Anthracite  Coal  is  Mined. 

5.  The  Making  of  Woolen  Blan-  30. 

kets.  31. 

6.  How  Charcoal  is  Burnt.  32. 

7.  The  Process  of  Making  Coke. 

8.  How  Iron  is  Cast.  33. 

9.  How  to  Make  Soap. 

10.  My  Method  of  Making  Fudge.  34. 

11.  How    Rails    are    Laid    on    a  35. 

Railroad. 

12.  How   to    Make    an   Electric  36. 

Battery. 

13.  The  Construction  of  a  Water-  37. 

wheel.  38. 

14.  How  to  Catch  Pickerel  with  a  39. 

Trolling  Line. 

15.  The  Care  and   Management  40. 

of  a  Steam  Boiler.  41. 

16.  How  a  Carriage  is  Built. 

17.  The  Process  of  Making  Pig-  42. 

iron.  43. 

18.  How  Wrapping-paper  is  Made. 

19.  The  Construction  of  Storm-  44. 

sewers.  45. 

20.  How  Shingles  are  Made. 

21.  How  to  Carry  a  Gun.  46. 

22.  Directions  for  Making  a  Can- 

vas Canoe.  47. 

23.  How   the    Stone  Arch   of  a 

Bridge  is  Built.  48. 

24.  The  Drilling  of  an  Oil-well.  49. 

25.  How  an   Ordinary   Table   is  50. 

Made. 


Sailing  an  Ice-yacht. 
How  Slate  is  Quarried. 
How  a  Grain  Elevator  is  Used. 
The    Creamery    Method    of 

Making  Butter. 
How  Carpet  is  Woven. 
How  to  Make  an  Herbarium. 
The  Process  of  Making  Fire- 
bricks. 
How  Tobacco  is   Cultivated 

and  Cured. 
The  Washing  of  Iron  Ore. 
How    Portland     Cement     is 

Made. 
The  Erection  of  an  Upright 

Tubular  Boiler. 
How  to  Treat  a  Horse. 
How  a  Wreck  is  Cleared  up. 
The    Manufacture    of     Plate 

Glass. 
How  Ropes  are  Made. 
The  Stack  Method  of  Burning 

Lime. 
How  to  Plaster  a  House. 
Directions     for    Planting    a 

Peach  Orchard. 
How  Cheese  is  Made. 
The  Preparation  of  Dynamite 

for  Market. 
How     Fishermen     Use     the 

Seine. 
The  Best  Method  of  Learning 

to  Swim. 
The  Quarrying  of  Sand. 
How  Tiles  are  Made. 
How  a  New  Railroad  is  Laid 

out. 


37^ 


COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC 


s*. 

The  Manufacture  of  Brooms. 

72. 

The  Process  of  Making  Steel. 

52. 

How  a  Barn  is  Raised. 

73. 

The  Manufacture  of  Ice. 

53- 

The  Process  of  Making  Apple 

74- 

How  Varnish  is  Made. 

Butter. 

75- 

How  a  Silo  is  Filled. 

54- 

How  Electroplating  is  Done. 

76. 

The  American  Method  of  Ex- 

55- 

The  Preparation  and  Weav- 

cavating a  Tunnel. 

ing  of  Asbestos. 

77- 

How  to  Make  a  Bob-sled. 

56. 

How  a  Bicycle  Frame  is  Made. 

78. 

Directions  for   Developing  a 

57- 

The  Burning  of  Lime  in  Kilns. 

Photographic  Plate. 

58. 

How  Sheep  are  Shorn. 

79- 

How    Ordinary    Bricks     are 

59- 

How  Cider  is  Made. 

Made. 

60. 

The  Removal  of  Snow  from 

80. 

My    Method     of    Collecting 

Railroad  Tracks. 

Fossils. 

61. 

How  a  Street  is  Paved  with 

81. 

How  Money  is  Coined. 

1 

Asphalt. 

82. 

The  Washing  and  Dyeing  of 

62. 

The  Process  of  Rolling  Iron. 

Wool. 

63- 

How  Window-glass  is  Made. 

83. 

How  a  Pin  is  Made. 

64. 

Shooting  an  Oil-well. 

84. 

The    Best   Way  to   Plant   a 

65. 

Directions  for  Making  a  Horse- 

Tree. 

shoe  Magnet. 

85. 

What  I  Saw  in  a  Cigar  Fac- 

66. 

How  Logs  are  Cut  and  Sawed. 

tory. 

67. 

The    Building    of   a    "  Sky- 

86. 

The    Manufacture    of   Paper 

scraper." 

from  Wood  Pulp. 

68. 

How  Shot  is  Made. 

87. 

Directions  for  Making  a  Blue- 

69. 

The   Making   of   Condensed 

print. 

Milk. 

88. 

The    Best  Way  to  Clean  a 

70. 

How     Bituminous     Coal     is 

Rifle. 

Mined. 

89. 

How  Horseshoes  are  Made. 

7»« 

Dredging  for  Oysters. 

90. 

The  Tanning  of  Sole-leather. 

VI.   PERSONAL   EXPERIENCES   AND   MISCELLANEOUS 
SUBJECTS 


1.  My   First    Experience   as    a 

Witness  in  Court. 

2.  Twenty  Degrees  below  Zero. 

3.  Fishing  for  Pickerel  through 

the  Ice. 


4.  An  Absent-minded  Man. 

5.  My  Room-mate^  Note-book. 

6.  A  Bicycle  Race  with  a  Storm. 

7.  My  Experience  with  an  Auto- 

mobile. 


APPENDIX   E 


377 


13- 


15- 

16. 

17- 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 

23- 

24. 

25. 

26. 
27. 
28. 

29. 
30. 

3»- 

32. 
33- 


A  Cold  Place  to  Spend  the  34. 

Night. 

A  Visit  to  a  Cotton  Mill.  •  35. 
Some   Interesting  Things  in 

the Museum.  36. 

Some    Improvements    in   my 

Home  Town.  37. 
The    Freshman     Gymnastic 

Drill.  38. 

How  I  shall  Spend  my  Vaca-  39. 

tion.  40. 
Learning      the     Machinist's 

Trade.  41  • 

My  Experience  in  Trying  to  42. 

keep  a  Diary.  43. 

The Reservoir. 

An  Afternoon  in  a  Library.  44. 

My  First  Horseback  Ride.  45. 

My  Summer  on  a  Farm.  46. 

Watching  the  Circus  Parade.  47. 
Hiving  a  Swarm  of  Bees. 

How  I  Spend  my  Sundays.  48. 

Taking  the  Class  Picture.  49. 

A  Summer's  Experience  as  a  50. 

Railroad  Track-hand.  5 1 . 

My  Experience  as  a  Travel-  52. 

ling  Salesman.  53. 
Learning  to  Ride  a  Bicycle. 

Two  Weeks  in  a  Hospital.  54. 

Making  a  Collection  of  Birds'  55. 

Eggs.  56. 
My   First   Hour  of   Military 

Drill.  57. 
My  Experience  as  a  Gardener. 

The       Teachers'       Institute  58. 

at .  59. 

Working  in  a  Sawmill. 

My  Most  Successful  Business  60. 

Enterprise. 


The  First  Night  of  my  Christ- 
mas Vacation. 

Some  Amusing  Mistakes  in 
my  Classes. 

Capturing  and  Taming  a 
Chipmunk. 

My  Experience  as  a  Messen- 
ger Boy. 

My  First  Ride  in  a  Sail-boat. 

The  Boys'  Brigade  in  Camp. 

An  Hour  on  a  Toboggan 
Slide. 

Trolling  for  Bluefish. 

A  Mennonite  Wedding. 

Some  Advantages  of  Velox 
Paper. 

A  Day's  Nutting. 

Hunting  for  a  Job. 

A  Homesick  Boy  at  College. 

Decorating  the  Opera  House 
for  Commencement. 

My  Experience  as  a  Reformer. 

A  Visit  to  the  Menagerie. 

How  I  Saw  the  Boat  Race. 

A  Coal  Miner's  Daily  Life. 

A  Runaway  Street  Car. 

My  Experience  as  a  Book- 
keeper. 

A  Hunt  for  Pheasants. 

Crabbing  at  the  Seashore. 

A  Visit  to  the  Carlisle  Indian 
School. 

How  Mail  is  Caught  by  a 
Moving  Train. 

My  Experience  as  a  Cook. 

The  Musical  Organizations  at 
College. 

My  First  Attempt  to  Make  a 
Speech. 


37* 


COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC 


61.  A  Rainy  Day  at  College. 

62.  Trapping  Musk-rats. 

63.  My  Vacation  Experience  as  a 

Hotel  Waiter. 

64.   College  Ten  Years  from 

now. 

65.  Learning  to  be  a  Telegraph 

Operator. 

66.  An  Epidemic  in  my  Native 

Town. 

67.  My  Experience  as  a  Salesman 

in  a Store. 

68.  Some  Interesting  Things  in  a 

Machine  Shop. 

69.  A  Colony  of  Italians. 

70.  Some  American  Antiquities. 

71.  My  Last  Hunting  Trip. 

72.  My  Experience  as  a  National 

Guardsman. 

73.  My  First  Rafting  Experience. 

74.  Taking  a  Picture   by  Flash- 

light. 

75.  A  Country  Literary  Society. 

76.  In  the  Track  of  the  Cyclone. 

77.  My  Apprenticeship  in  a  Print- 

ing Office. 

78.  My  First  Mountain  Climb. 

79.  Going  through  the  Locks  in  a 

Rowboat. 


80.  Trapping  Rabbits. 

81.  The  Books  I  Like  Best. 

82.  '  Hallowe'en  in  the  Country. 

83.  My  Favorite  Trout  Stream. 

84.  My  Experience  as  a  Street- 

car Conductor. 
85.-  Lost  in  a  Mine. 

86.  Exploring  the  Slums. 

87.  Fighting  a  Forest  Fire. 

88.  My  Experience  with  a  Run- 

away Team. 

89.  The  Stingiest  Man  I  Know. 

90.  A  Unique  Method  of  Making 

Money. 

91.  Some  Country  Superstitions. 

92.  My  Experience   in  Amateur 

Photography. 

93.  A  Dangerous  Practical  Joke. 

94.  Finding  a  Lodging. 

95.  A  Trip  with  the  Glee  Club. 

96.  Threshing  Day  on  the  Farm. 

97.  My  First   Day  as  a  Country 

School-teacher. 

98.  My  Experience  as  a    News- 

boy. 

99.  My  First  Impressions  of 

College  (or School). 

100.  Some  Signs  of  Coming  Ex- 

aminations. 


VII.     ARGUMENTATION1 

1 .  Strikes  are  justifiable. 

2.  An  eight-hour  working  day  should  be  adopted  in  the  United 
States  by  federal  law. 

3.  Prohibition  is  the  most  effective  means  of  checking  the  evils  of 
intemperance. 

1  These  propositions,  which  may  be  used  as  subjects  for  briefs,  debates,  and 
argumentative  themes,  have  been  compiled  from  various  sources. 


APPENDIX    E  379 

4.  All  international  disputes  should  be  settled  by  a  permanent  court 
of  arbitration. 

5.  Military  tactics  should  be  taught  in  the  public  schools. 

6.  The  boycott  is  a  legitimate  means  of  securing  concessions  from 
employers. 

7.  Cremation  is  better  than  burial  in  the  earth  as  a  means  of  dis- 
posing of  the  dead. 

8.  A  young  man  should  choose  his  profession  before  he  takes  his 
college  course. 

9.  Anti-trust  laws  are  desirable. 

10.  The  United  States  should  own  and  operate  all  railroads. 

11.  The  "honor  system"  should  prevail  in  all  high  school  (or  col- 
lege) examinations. 

12.  Congress  should  enact  stricter  immigration  laws. 

13.  A  high  protective  tariff  maintains  the  high  rate  of  wages  in  the 
United  States. 

14.  Attendance  at  school  should  be  compulsory  to  the  age  of  fifteen. 

15.   College  should  cease  to  admit  students  on  certificate. 

16.  Labor  unions  are  detrimental   to  the  industrial  welfare  of  the 
United  States. 

17.  Three-fourths  of  a  jury  should  be  competent  to  convict  or  acquit 
in  all  criminal  cases. 

18.  A  three  years'  course  of  study  in  college  should  be  sufficient  for 
a  bachelor's  degree  in  arts  or  science. 

19.  Freshmen  should  be  excluded  from   participation   in   intercol- 
legiate athletic  contests. 

20.  The  people  of  the  Southern  states  are  justified  in  their  efforts 
to  disfranchise  the  negro. 

21 .  United  States  Senators  should  he  elected  by  direct  popular  vote. 

22.  Libraries,  museums,  and  art  galleries  should  be  open  all  day  on 
Sunday. 

23.  All  the  studies  pursued  during  the  last  two  years  at  college 
should  be  elective. 

24.  It  is  better  for  a  college  to  be  situated  in  a  city  that  has  a  popu- 
lation of  at  least  twenty  thousand  than  in  a  smaller  town. 

25.  All  men  holding  public  office  should  be  prohibited  by  law  from 
accepting  passes  from  railroad  companies. 


INDEX 


Abbreviations,  343 ;  improper,  294;  used 
in  criticising  themes,  353,  354. 

accordingly,  217. 

Adaptation,  308,  313. 

Adjective  used  as  adverb,  189. 

Adjective  pronouns  as  means  of  indicat- 
ing coherence,  132. 

Adverb  used  as  adjective,  189. 

Adverbial  clauses,  punctuation  of,  339. 

Adverbial  expressions,  position  of,  334, 

335- 
"  A  Foolish  Trick,"  172. 
Agreement  of  verb  with  subject,  183-185 ; 

of  pronoun  with  antecedent,  186. 
Alliteration,  excessive,  268. 
also,  217. 
"  A  Machine  for  Cleaning  Cranberries," 

174. 
Ambiguity,  in  arrangement,  234-237 ;  in 

use  of  participles,  230-232 ;  in  use  of 

pronouns,  228-230. 
Ambiguity  and  Obscurity,  228-241. 
Amplification,  methods  of,  143-160. 
and,  213,  218,  237. 
"  and  which  "  construction,  189. 
"  An  Engineer's  Dilemma,"  139. 
Anglo-Saxon  words,  306-308. 
Antecedent  should  agree  in  number  with 

pronoun,  186. 
Anticlimax,  259. 
Antithesis,  253. 
Antonyms,  study  of,  325. 
anybody,  186. 
Apostrophe,  343. 
"  A  Queer  Craft,"  173. 
Archaic  words,  293. 
Argument,  21. 

Argumentation,  subjects  for,  378,  379. 
Argumentative  paragraphs,  subjects  for, 

177. 


Aristotle,  quoted,  8. 

Arrangement  for  sake  of  emphasis,  254- 
260. 

Art,  definition  of  an,  16. 

Art  and  science,  15,  16. 

Article,  omission  of,  187. 

Association,  laws  of,  67,  68. 

athletics,  184. 

Authority  for  the  principles  of  Composi- 
tion, 33. 

"  Average  reader,"  48. 

Awkwardness,  269,  270. 

"  Bad  loose  sentence,"  215. 

Balance,  false,  218. 

Balanced  sentence,  254. 

Barbarisms,  291. 

Bates,  Arlo,  quoted,  4,  297. 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  quoted,  307. 

Beginning,  of  whole  composition,  a  place 
for  emphasis,  94,  95 ;  of  paragraph,  a 
place  for  emphasis,  134,  135 ;  of  sen- 
tence, a  place  for  emphasis,  254,  255 ; 
what  constitutes  a  good,  95-100 ;  ex- 
amples of  good,  96,  97 ;  faulty,  98,  99. 

besides,  217. 

Bible,  literary  value  of  English,  327. 

Blair,  Dr.,  quoted,  9. 

both  .  .  .  and,  236. 

Burke,  quoted,  82,  145. 

but,  190,  213,  218,  237. 

but  that,  192. 

but  what,  192. 

Campbell,  Dr.,  quoted,  287-290. 

Capital  letters,  27,  334. 

Case,  errors  in,  187;  use  of  possessive, 
187,  188. 

Cause  and  effect  as  a  method  of  develop- 
ing a  paragraph,  148. 


381 


382 


INDEX 


Change  in  construction,  needless  and 
unwarranted,  239-241 ;  for  sake  of 
emphasis,  256,  257. 

Changes  in  language,  20,  290. 

Choice  of  words,  304-314;  exercises  in, 

3I5-3I7- 
Chronological    arrangement,    in    whole 
composition,  68-71 ;    in    paragraph, 

131- 

Claghorn,  Kate  Holloday,  quoted,  148. 

Class  themes,  168. 

Clauses,  connecting,  79 ;  coordinate,  181 ; 
dependent  or  subordinate,  181. 

Clearness,  19 ;  common  violations,  228- 
241. 

"  Cleft  infinitive,"  193. 

Climax,  in  paragraph,  135,  136;  in  ar- 
rangement of  words,  phrases,  and 
clauses,  258. 

Coherence,  a  principle  of  composition, 
32;  principle  of,  applied  to  whole 
composition,  66-84;  to  paragraph, 
130-134;  to  sentence,  227-241,  277; 
conflict  between  Coherence  and  Em- 
phasis as  applied  to  sentence,  256 ; 
of  whole  composition,  exercises  in, 
84-88 ;  of  sentence,  exercises  in,  242- 
248. 

Coleridge,  quoted,  134. 

Colon,  338,  343. 

Comma,  337-342. 

"Comma  blunder,"  216. 

Comparison,  as  a  method  of  developing 
a  paragraph,  144;  of  adjectives,  191; 
"  mixed,"  191. 

Complex  sentence,  181. 

Composition,  aim  of  practical  training 
in,  13;  defined,  15;  educational  value 
of,  5,  6;  general  principles  of,  31-34; 
kinds  of,  21 ;  material  for,  40,  41 ; 
practical  methods  of  studying,  11-14; 
practical  value  of,  3-5;  subject-mat- 
ter of,  24. 

Compound  sentence,  181. 

Compound  words,  342. 

Conciseness,  250. 

Conclusion,  qualities  of  a  good,  100-103 ; 
examples  of  good,  100-102;  faulty, 
102,  103. 

Concreteness,  special  force  of,  310. 


Conjunctions,  79;  between  sentences, 
132,  133 ;  coordinate,  181 ;  correla- 
tive, 236 ;  use  of,  217,  219,  236-238. 

Connecting  expressions,  79-81. 

Connecting  sentences,  79. 

Connectives,  see  Conjunctions. 

Connotation,  314. 

consequently,  217. 

Construction  changed  for  sake  of  em- 
phasis, 256,  257. 

Contrast,  as  a  method  of  developing  a 
paragraph,  146 ;  as  an  aid  to  effective- 
ness, 253. 

Coordinate  clause,  181 ;  written  as  a  sen- 
tence, 213;  punctuation  of,  337,  338. 

Coordination,  improper,  217,  237. 

Correlative  connectives,  236,  237. 

Correspondents,  proper  place  for,  236. 

Curtis,  George  William,  quoted,  136. 

Debate,  subjects  for,  378,  379. 

Definite  words,  309-311. 

Definitions,  15-23 ;  summary  of,  22. 

Denotation,  314. 

Derivation  of  words,  306-308 ;  study  of, 

325- 
Description,  21;  subjects  for,  370,  371. 
Description    and    narration    combined, 

subjects  for,  371,  372. 
Descriptive  paragraphs,  subjects  for,  176. 
Detail,  matters  of,  30. 
Development  of  the  paragraph,  143-160. 
Development    of   the  vocabulary  of   a 

given  idea,  325,  328. 
Diction,  19,  249,  287-315 ;  faulty,  355-367. 
Dictionary,  use  of,  301,  322,  355. 
different,  192. 
Diffuseness,  53,  96,  250. 
Digression,  in  whole  composition,  58; 

in  paragraph,  128. 
Directions  for  themes,  352. 
directly,  190. 

Disputed  diction,  356-367. 
Dowden,  Edward,  quoted,  144. 

each,  186. 

Ease,  265-270 ;  how  to  secure,  266-270. 

Ease  and  elegance,  exercises  in,  272-274 ; 

in  the  revision  of  sentence,  278. 
Editorial  paragraphs,  subjects  for,  178. 


INDEX 


383 


Effectiveness,  249-260 ;  exercises  in,  260- 
264. 

either  .  .  .  or,  186,  236. 

Elegance,  19,  270-272. 

Elements  of  style,  17. 

Ellipsis,  undue,  232-234. 

Emphasis,  a  principle  of  Composition, 
33;  principle  of,  applied  to  whole 
composition,  105,  106;  to  paragraph, 
134-136;  to  sentence,  249-260,  277; 
conflict  between  Emphasis  and  Co- 
herence as  applied  to  sentence,  256 ; 
of  whole  composition,  exercises  in, 
105,  106;  of  sentence,  exercises  in, 
260-264. 

Emphatic  modes  of  expression,  249-254. 

End  of  whole  composition,  a  place  for 
emphasis,  95 ;  of  paragraph,  a  place 
for  emphasis,  134,  135;  of  sentence, 
a  place  for  emphasis,  254,  255. 

Ending,  what  constitutes  a  good,  100- 
103 ;  examples  of  good,  100-102. 

Equipment  for  theme-writing,  student's, 
24-28. 

Etymology,  study  of,  325;  exercises  in, 
328. 

Euphony,  267-269. 

every,  186. 

Example  or  specific  instance  as  a  method 
of  developing  a  paragraph,  150. 

except,  190. 

Exclamation  point,  336. 

Exposition,  21 ;  subjects  for,  373-376. 

Expository  paragraphs,  subjects  for,  176. 

"  Factory  Legislation  in  England,"  106. 

Facts,  fundamental,  29-31. 

"  Father  Harley,"  173. 

Figures  of  speech,  251-254 ;  based  upon 
similarity,  253 ;  based  upon  contrast, 
253,  254;  propriety  in  using,  271. 

"  Fine  writing,"  313,  314,  326. 

for,  213. 

Force,  19 ;  see  Effectiveness. 

Foreign  words,  293. 

Formal  Proof,  as  a  method  of  developing 
a  paragraph,  149. 

General  words,  309,  310. 
Good  taste,  270,  271. 


Good  Use,  20,  21,  30,  31,  181-198,  271, 
275,  276,  287-302,  334,  335,  355-367 ; 
as  applied  to  grammatical  construc- 
tions, 181-198;  as  applied  to  words, 
287-302;  list  of  common  violations 
of,  355-367. 

Grammar,  English,  25;  importance  of, 
182,  183. 

Grammatical  correctness,  181-198;  ex- 
ercises in,  198-204. 

Grammatical  terms,  182. 

Greenough  and  Kittredge's  "  Words 
and  their  Ways  in  *English  Speech," 
quoted,  133. 

Hackneyed  phrases,  311-313,  326. 

had  rather,  297. 

Hale,  Edward  Everett,  Jr.,  quoted,  13. 

hardly,  190,  192. 

Harmony  of  tone,  60. 

Head,  Sir  Edmund  W.,  quoted,  197. 

hence,  217. 

Hill,  A.  S„  quoted,  234,  327. 

"  Honesty  in  College  Work,"  174. 

however,  217. 

"  How  Flour  is  Made,"  85. 

"  How  to  Write  a  Good  Paragraph,"  76. 

Hugo,  Victor,  quoted,  146. 

Hyphen,  342. 

Ideas  and  words,  6. 

Idioms,  296-301 ;  importance  of  a  knowl- 
edge of,  299. 
Improprieties,  291,  295;  list  of  common, 

355-367- 

Indefinite  pronouns,  186,  228. 

Infinitive,  "  split"  or  "  cleft,"  193. 

Instructor's  marks  for  the  criticism  .of 
themes,  353. 

Interrogation  point,  336. 

Introduction,  95,  98,  99;  in  longer  com- 
positions, 99 ;  irrelevant,  57,  98. 

Inversion,  255,  256,  258. 

Irving,  quoted,  152,  161-165. 

Isolated  paragraphs,  different  kinds  of, 
166,  172. 

Jeffrey,  Francis,  quoted,  308. 
Jerkiness  produced  by  lack  of  connec- 
tives, 134. 
Judgment,  matters  of,  31. 


3§4 


INDEX 


Kipling,  quoted,  311. 

Lalor  and  Mason's  "  Primer  of  Political 
Economy,"  quoted,  150. 

Language,  changes  in,  20,  290. 

Latin,  study  of,  323. 

Latin  derivatives,  306. 

"  Law  of  Simplicity,"  87. 

lay  and  lie,  192. 

Lewes,  George  Henry,  quoted,  87. 

like,  190. 

Literary  study,  value  of,  XI,  266,  270,323. 

Literature  of  thought,  73,  74,  143. 

Logical  order,  for  argument  and  exposi- 
tion, 73-77;  for  description,  71;  for 
narration,  69. 

Lo#ngfellow,  quoted,  153. 

Loose  sentence,  defined,  210;  "bad," 
215. 

Macaulay,  quoted,  145. 

Manuscript,  333. 

Material  for  compositions,   24,    39-41 ; 

selection  of,  54-57. 
McPhail,  G.  W.,  quoted,  315. 
Mechanical  processes,  27,  333-344. 
"  Mechanics  of  expression,"  25. 
Metaphor,  253. 
Miller,  Hugh,  quoted,  308. 
Mixed  comparisons,  191. 
Mixed  constructions,  185. 
moreover,  217. 
Miiller,  Max,  quoted,  149. 
"  My  Largest  Bass,"  98. 

Narration,  21 ;  method  of  paragraphing, 
ISS-WJ  subjects  for,  368,  369. 

Narrative  paragraphs,  subjects  for,  175. 

National  use,  287,  288. 

Negatives,  190. 

neither  .  .  .  nor,  186,  236. 

nevertheless,  2ij. 

Newcomer,  A.  G.,  quoted,  6o,  348. 

New  words,  294. 

Non-restrictive  relative  clauses,  339. 

nor  used  for  and  .  .  .  not,  190. 

Normal  order  of  words  in  English  sen- 
tence, 255. 

not  only  .  .  .  but  also,  236. 

Nouns,  collective,  185 ;  plural  forms  of, 
183 ;  singular  forms  of,  184. 


Number,  agreement  in,  between  predi- 
cate verb  and  subject,  183-185;  be- 
tween antecedent  and  pronoun,  186. 

Numerals,  343. 

Obscurity,  228-241. 

Obsolescent  words,  293,  355. 

Obsolete  words,  283,  355. 

Obverse  iteration  as  a  method  of  devel- 
oping a  paragraph,  147. 

Omission  of  important  words,  232-234; 
of  verb,  185. 

only,  234,  235. 

or  after  not,  no,  never,  etc.,  190. 

Organic  unity  of  sentence,  207,  208. 

"  Oriole  Cave,"  86. 

Orthography,  see  Spelling. 

Outline,  108-116;  as  an  aid  in  applying 
principles  of  Rhetoric  to  whole  com- 
position, 109-111 ;  how  to  make,  111- 
114 ;  exercises  in  making  and  criticis- 
ing, 117-120;  of  chapter  on  "Unity 
and  Selection,"  114,  115;  value  of, 
109,  no. 

Paragraph,  17;  argumentative,  149; 
cause  and  effect  as  a  method  of  de- 
veloping, 148;  climax  in,  135;  com- 
parison as  a  method  of  developing, 
144 ;  contrast  as  a  method  of  devel- 
oping, 146;  defined,  123;  descrip- 
tive, 152;  development  of,  143-160; 
digressions  in,  128;  example  of  a 
well-unified,  125;  exercises  in  apply- 
ing principles  of  Composition  to, 
139-142;  expository,  143-152 ;  formal 
proof  as  a  method  of  developing, 
149;  how  to  write,  76;  ideal,  154; 
isolated,  166;  kinds  of,  136,  137; 
length  of,  126,  127,  129;  narrative, 
153,  155-159;  obverse  iteration  as  a 
method  of  developing,  147 ;  of  sum- 
mary and  transition,  82;  outline,  82; 
particularization  as  a  method  of  de- 
veloping, 151 ;  principle  of  Coherence 
applied  to,  130-134 ;  principle  of  Em- 
phasis applied  to,  134-136;  principle 
of  Proportion  applied  to,  129,  130; 
principle  of  Selection  applied  to, 
129;  principle  of  Unity  applied  to, 


INDEX 


385 


124-129;  principle  of  Variety  ap- 
plied to,  136,  137;  purpose  of,  123; 
repetition  as  a  method  of  developing, 
143 ;  revision  of,  171 ;  specific  in- 
stance or  example  as  a  method  of 
developing,  150;  transition,  81 ;  "  un- 
developed," 172;  value  of,  78. 

Paragraph  structure,  studies  in,  161-165 ; 
variety  in,  136,  137,  154. 

Paragraph  theme,  166-175;  defined, 
167 ;  value  of,  as  an  exercise  in  com- 
position, 167-172 ;  exercises  in  writing, 
175-178;  principles  of  Composition 
applied  to,  169-171 ;  specimens  of, 
172-175;   subjects  for,  175-178. 

Paragraph-topic,  124;  implied,  131; 
stated  at  beginning  of  paragraph,  125, 
135 ;  stated  at  end  of  paragraph,  149, 
150. 

Parallel  construction  in  the  sentence, 
239-241. 

Participial  nouns,  195. 

Participial  phrase,  193;  ambiguous  and 
obscure  use  of,  230-232;  at  beginning* 
of  sentence,  194,  232. 

Participle,  attached,  193 ;  "  dangling," 
192,  231,  232;  incoherent  use  of,  230- 
232;  "trailing,"  194,  231,  232. 

Particularization  as  a  method  of  develop- 
ing a  paragraph,  151. 

Pearson,  Henry  G.,  quoted,  206. 

Period,  336. 

Periodic  sentence,  209 ;  value  of  practice 
in  writing,  210. 

Personal  experiences  as  subjects  for 
themes,  376-378. 

Personification,  253. 

Phrase,  182;  connecting,  79;  written  as 
sentence,  211. 

Plan  or  outline,  184. 

politics,  184. 

Point  of  view,  48-51 ;  a  mental  attitude, 
49,  50;  in  description,  49,  50;  vio- 
lated, 50;  exercises  in,  63. 

Position  of  words,  importance  of,  228. 

Precision,  308. 

Predicate,  181. 

Prepositions  used  with  particular  words, 
298. 

Present  use,  287,  289. 


Principles  of  Composition,  fundamental, 
31-34;  authority  of,  33. 

Prodigal  Son,  Parable  of,  69,  70. 

Pronoun,  ambiguous  and  obscure  use  of, 
228-230 ;  relation  of  antecedent  to,  228. 

Proof,  as  a  method  of  developing  a  para- 
graph, 149. 

Proportion,  a  principle  of  Composition, 
32;  applied  to  whole  composition, 
89-94;  to  paragraph,  129,  130;  con- 
cerns itself  with  relative  importance 
of  ideas,  89,  90. 

Provincialisms,  288,  292. 

Punctuation,  27,  335-344;  how  learned, 
335 ;  purpose  of,  335 ;  rules  of,  336- 
343;  exercises  in,  344-347. 

Purpose,  the  writer's,  47. 

Qualities  of  style,  19. 
Quotation  marks,  343. 

raise  and  rise,  192. 

Reader,  the  "  average,"  48. 

Readers,  different  classes  of,  47,  48. 

Reading,  value  of,  11,  266,  270,  323. 

Reading  aloud,  value  of,  267. 

Reference-words,  132,  133. 

Relative  clauses,  position  of,  234,  235; 
punctuation  of,  339;  restrictive  and 
explanatory,  339. 

Repetition,  251,  266,  268;  as  an  aid  to 
coherence,  133,  134;  as  a  method  of 
developing  a  paragraph,  143. 

Reputable  use,  287,  288. 

Restrictive  and  non-restrictive  clauses, 
339.  340. 

Revision,  of  paragraph,  171 ;  of  sentence, 
275-278 ;  exercises  in,  279-283. 

Rhetoric,  Aristotle's  treatise  on,  8  ;  criti- 
cal method  of  studying,  11;  defined, 
16;  Dr.  Blair's  lectures  on,  9;  Dr. 
Campbell's  treatise  on,  10;  general 
principles  of,  31-34;  importance  of, 
3-7 ;  literary  method  of  studying,  8- 
14;  practical  method  of  studying, 
11-14;  theoretical  metl^d  of  study- 
ing, 8-10. 

Rhyme,  inadvertent,  268. 

"  Rural  Life  in  England,"  161. 

Ruskin,  quoted,  126. 


386 


INDEX 


scarcely,  190,  192. 

Science,  definition  of,  15. 

Selection,  a  principle  of  Composition, 
32;  principle  of,  applied  to  whole 
composition,  53-57 ;  principle  of,  ap- 
plied to  paragraph,  129;  of  material, 
exercises  in,  62,  117. 

Sellar's  "  Roman  'Poets  of  the  Augustan 
Era,"  quoted,  80. 

Semicolon,  337,  340. 

Sentence,  17 ;  as  the  unit  of  expression, 
205,  211 ;  "  bad  loose,"  215 ;  balanced, 
254;  compared  to  a  physical  organ- 
ism, 206;  complex,  181;  compound, 
181,208;  connecting,  79;  containing 
less  than  one  complete  thought,  211- 
214;  containing  more  than  one 
complete  thought,  214-217 ;  exercises 
in  Coherence  of,  242-248 ;  exercises 
in  Emphasis  of,  260-264 ;  exercises  in 
Good  Use  as  applied  to,  198-204 ;  ex- 
ercises in  the  revision  of,  270-283; 
exercises  in  Unity  of,  220-226;  het- 
erogeneous, 215 ;  how  much  should 
be  put  into  one,  208;  kinds  of,  181, 
182;  long,  266;  loose,  210,  211; 
normal  order  of  words  in  English, 
254;  organic  unity  of,  207,  208;  pe- 
culiar danger  of  the  loose,  216;  peri- 
odic, 209,  210 ;  phrase  written  as,  211 ; 
principle  of  Coherence  applied  to, 
227-241 ;  principle  of  Emphasis  ap- 
plied to,  249-260 ;  principle  of  Unity 
applied  to,  203-220;  principle  of 
Variety  applied  to,  267;  punctuation 
o^  336 ;  revision  of,  275-278  ;  "  see- 
saw," 218 ;  short,  250,  266 ;  simple, 
181,  208. 

Sentence-division,  208-217. 

set  and  sit,  192. 

shall  and  will,  196-198 ;  in  indirect  dis- 
course, 196 ;  in  questions,  196. 

Short  sentences,  250. 

should  and  would,  197,  198. 

Simile,  253. 

Simple  sentence,  181. 

Simplicity,  law  of,  87. 

Slang,  291,  292,  326. 

Smiles,  Samuel,  quoted,  150. 

Smith,  Alexander,  quoted,  151. 


Smoothness,  265. 

So  as  loose  connective,  217,  238,  239. 

Solecisms,  291 ;  list  of  common,  183-197. 

"  Some  Places  of  Interest  near  my 
Home,"  63. 

"  Some  Sound  Principles  of  Taxation," 
140. 

Sound,  sameness  of,  268. 

Sounds,  harsh  combinations  of,  269. 

Specific  instance  or  example  as  a  method 
of  developing  a  paragraph,  150. 

Specific  words,  309-311 ;  exercises  in  use 
of,  316,  317. 

Spelling,  25,  348-351. 

"  Split  infinitive,"  193. 

Style,  18,  20;  elements  of,  17;  qualities 
of,  19;  Swift's  definition  of,  27. 

Subject,  37-43 ;  abstract,  38 ;  analysis  of, 
112, 113 ;  choice  of,  37-39 ;  clear  con- 
ception of,  47 ;  exercises  in  choosing, 
43~45  I  should  be  restricted,  38,  39. 

Subject  of  sentence,  agreement  of  verb 
with,  183-185  ;  compound,  185. 

Subjects  for  argumentation,  378  ;  for  de- 
scription, 370;  for  description  and 
narration  combined,  371,  372;  for 
exposition,  373-376;  for  narration, 
368;  for  paragraph  themes,  175- 
178. 

Subjunctive  mood,  193. 

Subordinate  clause,  181 ;  punctuation  of, 
338-340 ;  written  as  sentence,  212. 

Substantive  clauses,  338. 

Summaries,  82,  100. 

Superlative  degree,  191. 

Synonyms,  study  of,  325. 

Technical  words,  289,  292,  293. 

Tense,  errors  in,  195. 

Thackeray,  quoted,  155-157. 

than  with  different,  hardly,  and  scarcely, 
192. 

Themes,  directions  for,  352;  instructor's 
marks  for  criticism  of,  353 ;  material 
for,  40,  41 ;  subjects  for,  175-178, 368- 

379- 
Theme-subjects,  classified  lists  of,  175- 

178,  368-379. 
Theme-writing,  conditions  of  successful, 

29.  3°- 


then,  217. 

there  at  beginning  of  sentence,  184. 

therefore,  217. 

"  these  kind,"  186. 

"those  kind"  186. 

Title,  41 ;  not  the  real  beginning,  42. 

Topic-sentence,  125;  at  the  end  of  para- 
graph, 149. 

Transition  paragraphs,  81. 

Translation,  value  of,  324,  327  ;  exercise 
in,  302. 

"Translation  English,"  299;  cure  for, 
300. 

Transposition,  255,  256,  258. 

Trite  phrases,  311-313. 

Uniformity  of  construction  in  sentence, 
239,  240. 

Unity,  a  principle  of  Composition,  31 ; 
piinciple  of,  applied  to  whole  compo- 
sition, 46-62;  to  paragraph,  124-129; 
to  sentence,  204-220;  of  expression, 
217,  237,  238;  of  feeling,  46,  60,  61; 
of  purpose,  46-61 ;  of  thought,  46, 
52-59,  237;  of  treatment,  46,  59,  60; 
organic,  207,  208 ;  exercises  in  Unity 
of  whole  composition,  62-65 1  exer- 
cises in  Unity  of  sentence,  220-226 ; 
in  revision  of  sentence,  276. 

"Unity  and  Selection,"  outline  of  chap- 
ter on,  114-116. 

Variety,  a  principle  of  Composition,  33 ; 

principle  of,   applied  to  paragraph, 

136,  137  ;.  to  sentence,  267. 
Verb,  omission  of,  185. 
Vocabulary,  318;    conversational,   319; 

for  reading,   319;    for  writing,  319; 

hackneyed,  311-313;  how  to  increase 


INDEX  387 

and  improve,  318-328;  need  of,  26, 
318. 
Vulgarisms,  291. 


Wendell,  Barrett,  quoted,  111. 

■which,  188. 

who,  188. 

Whole  composition,  17;  principle  of 
Coherence  applied  to,  66-84;  prin- 
ciple of  Emphasis  applied  to,  105, 
106;  principle  of  Proportion  applied 
to,  89-94;  principle  of  Selection  ap- 
plied to,  53-57;  principle  of  Unity 
applied  to,  46-62 ;  exercises  in  Cohe- 
rence of,  84-88;  exercises  in  Em- 
phasis and  Proportion  of,  105-107, 
exercises  in  Unity  and  Selection  as 
applied  to,  62-65. 

without,  190. 

Wordiness,  250. 

Words,  abbreviated,  294;  archaic,  293; 
careless  use  of,  241 ;  choice  of,  27, 
306-315 ;  derivation  of,  306,  308 ;  ex- 
act values  in,  320,  321,  325  ;  exercises 
in  distinguishing  meaning  of,  329 ; 
familiar,  306;  foreign,  293,  306^308; 
frequently  misspelled,  348-350;  gen- 
eral and  specific,  309-311 ;  "  inevita- 
ble," 326 ;  long  versus  short,  306-308  ; 
native  versus  foreign,  306-308;  new, 
289,  294,  295 ;  obsolescent,  293,  355 ; 
obsolete,  283,  355;  provincial,  292; 
slang,  291,  326;  technical,  289,  292, 
293;  the  symbols  of  ideas,  15,  17; 
vulgar,  291. 

Words  and  ideas,  6. 

Worsford,  W.  Basil,  quoted,  146. 

"  Yosemite  Valley,"  72. 


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